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1 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved.
Social Psychology &
INFOSECNEW ENGLAND INFORMATION SECURITY GROUP
2004-05-20M. E. Kabay, PhD, CISSP
Assoc. Prof. Information AssuranceProgram Director, Master of Science in Information Assurance
Norwich University
2 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved.
Topics
Attribution Theory Social Cognition: Forming Judgments Beliefs and Attitudes Prejudice Locus of Control Persuasion and Attitude Change Conformity, Compliance and Obedience Pro-Social (Helpful) Behavior
3 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved.
Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory How people explain their own and others'
behavior Weiner's classification:
Stable Unstable
Internal
External
Dispositions;traits; level of
ability or intelligence
Effort;mood;
physical state
Good/bad luck;opportunity;
transientsituations
Degree of taskdifficulty; env
helps/hindrance
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Attribution Theory (cont’d) How we explain behavior
Fundamental Attribution Error– Star Trek's Leonard Nimoy is really like
the character he portrays (Mr Spock) Actor-Observer Effect
– What I do is a reasonable response to the situation but what you do is in your nature
Salience– What stands out is perceived as most
important even if it isn't
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Attribution Theory (cont’d) Self-Serving Bias
– If I succeed it's because of how good I am, but if I lose it's not my fault
Self-Handicapping– If I expect to fail I'll make sure there's a
good excuse Depressed People
– If I lose it's because of how bad I am, but if I succeed it's not to my credit
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Attribution Theory: Implications Leader and others: remember not to pigeon-
hole someone – E.g., “He’s always _______”
Reverse situation – think about explanations for perplexing or objectionable behavior– “If I were behaving that way, it would be
because __________” Challenge unthinking reliance on salience –
question assumptions about causality– “Why should the fact that he limps make a
difference to _________?”
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Social Cognition: Forming Judgements Schemas influence perception Decision-making usually includes only a
small subset of available information Language influences perception Reasoning is only a small part of forming
judgments or opinions
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Schemas
Organized knowledge about the world Influence perceptions — Allport’s experiments
with drawings of people on tramway Affect memory — witnesses unreliable More subtle and complex for in-groups than for
out-groups – give outgroup no credit May lead to self-fulfilling prophecies; e.g., math
teachers vs girls– Reward compliance with schema (boys)– Punish deviation (girls)
Suggestion: question expectations, assumptions
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Schemas (cont’d)
Schema from one sphere may interfere with successful implementation of new policies
Present counterintuitive information in advance– Provide enough time for assimilation– Distribute background papers– Use case studies to counter inappropriate
schemata
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Inadequate Sampling
Judgments are often based on inadequate samples
Early, negative, information weighted heavily The availability heuristic can lead to errors in
judgment– What’s easy to remember weighs too heavily
in decision– Anecdotal evidence inappropriately strong
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Inadequate Sampling (cont’d) Provide decision makers with powerful
arguments first Ensure there’s lots of striking, memorable
evidence in presentation Explicitly challenge incorrect intuition,
preconceptions, conclusions
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Beliefs and Attitudes
Belief: cognitive information without affect– “The operators are responsible for tape
mounts.” Attitude: evaluation or emotional response
– “The */$&/! Operators are supposed to be responsible for tape mounts!”
Cognitive dissonance: incompatible beliefs, attitudes or behavior– “I am an honest person – but I have taken
home three dozen Zip disks this month.”
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Beliefs and Attitudes
Before attempting to change beliefs and attitudes, study what they are– Interviews– Focus groups– Surveys
Use language carefully– Positive terms for desired end-point
Encouragement is effective– Even minor praise, smile can shape beliefs
and attitudes Allow time for change – weeks at least
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Beliefs and Attitudes (cont’d)Suggestions for security group: Explore current beliefs and attitudes towards
security– Identify areas of conflict, negative affect– Correct erroneous beliefs fast– Explore why some policies are successful
Provide consistent pro-security messages to avoid dissonance– e.g., managers should not ignore polices
Rewards more effective than punishment– encouraging positive attitudes & behavior
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Prejudice
Stereotypes – simple models of others;– e.g., racial profiling, assumptions about security
officers Roots of prejudice are many – historical, social,
familial, psychological, personal Authoritarian personality includes prejudice Minimal-group research – easy to generate inter-
group hostility and prejudice simply by grouping Group competition exacerbates prejudice
– Creating common goals and projects for hostile groups mitigates prejudice
Favorable depictions improve inter-group relations
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Locus of Control
People work better when they feel in control– Able to affect outcomes– Considered by decision-makers– Listened-to
Experimental evidence– Teams working in noisy environment– Patients in convalescence homes
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Locus of Control
Locus of Control Group 1
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Locus of Control
Locus of Control Group 2
STOP
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Locus of Control
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Persuasion and Attitude Change: Effective CommunicationWhat influences pace of change: Audience/Listener variables Channel variables Communicator/Presenter variables Message variables
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Effective Communication:Listener Variables Knowledge base Objectives Intelligence Alertness Motivation
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Knowledge Base
Define prerequisite knowledge, skills Ask each participant for brief biography Explore related areas of knowledge Identify strengths and weaknesses Incorporate interests into examples,
discussions
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Intelligence
Less important than frequently assumed Encourage questions, discussion Praise interventions, ideas, contributions For courses
– Effective study methods can compensate– Offer assistance outside class
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Alertness
Sleep deprivation harmful to learning Use channel variables to enhance alertness Provide frequent breaks Respond immediately to inattention Use humor and the unexpected Discourage heavy lunches Forbid alcohol during task-force meetings,
workshops and training
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Motivation
“What would you like to be able to do after this course that you can’t do now?”
Beware forced participation: work to convince of meeting or courses utility
For courses: address benefits of mastery– Share experiences in real world– Bring in enthusiastic “graduate”
• If possible, one who was negative at start
• Have brief description of positive results, value
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Channel Variables
Time available Working conditions Visibility, audibility, clarity High interactivity
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Time Available
Allow for at least ~2-3 minutes/slide on average– Check your timings if you use more slides– Be sure that you can in fact present all the
slides At most ~1 hr between breaks
– Use longer breaks (e.g., 20-30 minutes) to foster creativity
– Informal discussions often useful At most ~7 hr/day If necessary, plan 2 or more days or sessions
for better assimilation and application of complex issues
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Working Conditions
Keep room relatively cool Lights bright if possible Comfortable chairs Desks or tables with enough room for
computers and papers Printed materials with room for notes Multimedia: reference articles, videos If possible and appropriate, network with hub
& LAN connectors– High-speed access to Net– NetMeeting software
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Visibility, Audibility, Clarity Stand, move, sit Speak clearly at all times
– Keep microphone away from direct line of breath (avoids noise)
Vary speed– Slower than conversation– Pauses effective for emphasis
Over-inflect for emphasis– Different from conversational mode– Increase frequency range and dynamic
range Face the audience, not the slide / poster
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High Interactivity
Ask questions frequently Challenge individuals Turn discussion to relevant personal
experiences Use digressions constructively to reinforce
message Use examples from participants’ experiences When teaching, remember individual
students’ interests and point out relevance of specific material to them
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Effective Communication:Presenter Variables Psychology and motivation Empathy and imagination Patience Subject knowledge Background knowledge Ethical standards Externals
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Psychology and Motivation
Commitment to group / participant / student achievement
Beware feelings of power and superiority Encourage questions, challenges
– Thank people for raising questions; smile– Set example: “I don’t know that; can
anyone help on that question?. . . . I’ll do some research for the next meeting / class.”
– Deal with extensive discussions at break to avoid disrupting flow of meeting
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Psychology and Motivation (cont’d) Admit mistakes immediately and clearly
– “On that third point, I was wrong. Thank you to Scott for pointing out that. . . .”
Unforgivable to humiliate people– Grounds for dismissal
Every session is a chance for leader / teacher to learn– Write down ideas for improvement
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Empathy and Imagination
Remember what it was like being a beginner– Define jargon terms– Define acronyms on first use
Identify basic knowledge and skills needed for assimilation of later concepts, material
In courses, ensure that basics are thoroughly mastered– If necessary, take disproportionately
longer at start of meeting / course Encourage meetings after meeting / class
– Make schedule of availability known– Stick to schedule, especially for students
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Patience
Find alternative ways of explaining ideas / skills– Analogies– Examples– War stories
When question out of place, defer answer– Later in lecture if suitable– At break or after class
Respect students for wanting to understand
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Subject Knowledge
Difficult or impossible to provide technical leadership or to teach without mastering subject
Create your own presentation materials– Or adapt existing materials
Use all available resources to supplement your knowledge and understanding– Textbooks– Articles– Colleagues– Online databases
“I don’t know; let’s try to find out!”
Essayons!
Motto of Norwich University
Essayons!
Motto of Norwich University
Essayons!
Motto of Norwich University
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Background Knowledge
Read widely in related areas Bring in analogies from other areas of
experience Use personal life-experiences when suitable Talk about feelings as well as ideas Express values openly Use divergence of judgment or opinion as
opportunity for expanding everyone’s knowledge
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Ethical Standards
Work for the participants’ and the organization’s benefit
Review and revise course materials as appropriate before reusing them
Provide value for time invested Take participants’ other commitments into
account — stay on schedule– Start when you say you’ll start– Stop when you say you’ll stop
If teaching a course, make it possible to achieve maximum grades
Teachers: beware of emotional / sexual entanglements with students — violation of professional ethical standards
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Effective Communication:Message Variables Context Behavioral objectives Organization Content Review questions
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Context
Provide overview of coming materials– If appropriate, specify preliminary readings– Provide notes for participants / students– Use overview slides throughout
presentation Explain why information matters to
participants or students Focus on practical skills and examples Courses: consider open-book exams,
cooperative learning
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Behavioral Objectives
Avoid internally defined objectives such as “knowing”, “becoming familiar with” etc.
What will the team or the class be able to DO after the session / course that they can’t do yet?– Analyze, apply, attack, choose, compare,
contrast, decide, defend, define, discuss, design, demonstrate, establish, explain, improve, optimize, prepare, repair, solve, teach, . . . .
– Within certain time limits, with certain tools available, accomplish specific actions. . . .
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Organization
Design presentation / course top-down– Sketch out areas of concern, skills– Fill in details
Fundamental questions– What’s this all about? (context)– So why should I care about it? (motivation)– So what’s the scoop? (content)
Provide signposts explaining upcoming sections
Start each section with restatement of why it matters
Emphasize mastery of basic knowledge Point to more advanced topics
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Organization (cont’d)
Memory works through association– Engrams — patterns of neuronal firings in
chains that activate experience, concepts– Want to provide lots of hooks for
assimilation / memory Present practical examples before stating
theory– Need concrete example to establish
framework for associations Invite comment, experiences from
participants before presenting theory– Opportunity to strengthen integration of
new information into web of associations
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Evaluating Effectiveness of Communication When leading a meeting or an informal course or
workshop, gauge effectiveness through– Watching body language throughout session– Informal discussion– 1:1 conversation
Interviews, focus groups, surveys
For formal courses, can use essays, quizzes, examinations, projects– Include active knowledge as well as passive– If open-book, preferable to restrict time; e.g., 2
minutes per question
Declining accuracy
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Conformity, Compliance and Obedience Shift normative values towards goal
– Express expectation of cooperation – “We” Group solidarity increases conformity
– Group exercises, games, teamwork– If using contests, mix up the teams
Outliers are especially important– Both enthusiasts and resisters
Norm of reciprocity– Give a little, get a little
Foot in the door– Get a little, get more
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Pro-Social (Helpful) BehaviorActing helpfully requires 4 steps: Notice problem
– Need awareness Recognize as emergency
– Need training Take responsibility for action
– Need climate for responsible action– No worry about looking foolish
Decide on action– Sound training, good policies
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Pro-Sociality (cont’d)
Bystander Effect– Larger groups have slower reaction time– Diffusion of responsibility– Uncertainty about social climate
Counter bystander effect using rewards for responsible behavior– E.g., reporting security violations– Challenging unbadged strangers
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Pro-Sociality (cont’d)
Cost-benefit analysis– Make prosociality low cost / high gain– Provide hotline for security violations– Allow anonymity in reports
Make failing to support policy expensive– Personnel policies: clear sanctions– Performance review– Possible dismissal
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DISCUSSION
M. E. Kabay, PhD, CISSP
mailto:mkabay@norwich.edu
http://www2.norwich.edu/mkabay