Post on 18-Jan-2016
transcript
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Organisations andCommunication
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Communication as a process
message
media
sender
audience
context
noise, distortion
Organisational functioning
Human initiation, interaction, interpretation and impact
Coordination
Control
Adoption of technical devices
Organisational functioning
Human initiation, interaction, interpretation and impact
Coordination
Control
Adoption of technical devices
A process which conveys information and meaning (consensus or otherwise) between senders and recipients
A process which conveys information and meaning (consensus or otherwise) between senders and recipients
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Hard and soft communications
What is being communicated?
Content and process
Functional information & coordinates Policies, procedures, programmes, targets Transaction processing - documents, data, flows,
processing, records & rules Allocations, budgets & budgeting Grape vine & rumour Mgt information, analysis & reports
Complexity, certainty, timeliness, accuracy, completeness
Vertical, lateral & networked up/down, cascade, mining, filtering
Feelings based communication
Sensitive data - confidentiality, privacy, intellectual capital
Enterprise intelligence & the K-based organisation
Oi, Hello, is there
anybody there
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Information flows (manufacturing) & supply chain
Government
CompetitorsCustomers
Regulatorybodies
Legalenvironment
Suppliers
AccountingStandards Stock exchange
Shareholders
Marketing
Sales
Design
Purchasing
Inward logistics
Production planningProduction control
Quality control
Delivery
Finance
After-sales
orders
orders
Relationshipmanagement
invoices
payments
share prices
dividends
design informationmarket research data
JITdata
intelligencedata
invoices
orders
delivery notes
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Perceptual, conceptual & related capacities
Perceptual - Sensing, measuring, judging Colour, sound, texture, smell. Interpreting smells, noises, signals Monitoring sounds, vibrations, data, information Frames of reference - vantage point
Conceptual - associating, abstracting, formulating, calculating, inferring Understanding processes in the abstract Hypothesising & predicting from associated, comparative information Depends on knowledge - range, depth and level Dealing with symbolic information
Relating - Ego & alter oriented: Needs for achievement, power, affiliation sensitivity & empathy, identification & association, objective-subjective,
attitudes & valuesPhysical
Storage, access, processing & transmission capacity, security, privacy
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Perception
Context
Stimulus strength
Selective
Horns, halo
Expectancy & predisposition
Wishful thinking
Stereotyping & distortion
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Changing Impressions
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Modelling some elements of perception
Nature and content of stimulus
Sensationawareness
select & group to form precept
store
constancy rulesconstancy rules
Rules ofselectionRules ofselection
contiguity formcontiguity form
scan
previous experienceprevious experience
store
scan
match
YesRecogniseAh Ha!
YesRecogniseAh Ha!
inner needs inner needs
self-conceptself-concept
cultureculturevaluesvalues
rolerolemind setmind set
mental statemental statesituationsituationWhat a
re the pro
blems
of this ty
pe of
explanation??
What are th
e problems
of this ty
pe of
explanation??
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Johari Window (Luft 1961)
What Isee inme
What Isee inme
What Idon't see in me
What Idon't see in me
What you see in meWhat you see in me What you do not see in meWhat you do not see in me
Open self open, known information & understanding
Open self open, known information & understanding
Private self Private self
Blind self Blind self
UnknownNeither has much information or insight
UnknownNeither has much information or insight
Leakage, disclosureLeakage, disclosure
Feedback, disclosureFeedback, disclosure
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Communications effectiveness?
Market Research Who are we selling to?
Who else is selling to our customers
Competitively? Non-competitively?
Who are our customers selling to?
How do we sell?
How effectively?
How much?
How do our customers buy?
What do they buy from us?
When & where?
Why?
Why do we sell what we do?
Communication research How do we communicate to our customers?
What do we communicate?
How do they see us, our products, services?
Trust, reliability, mutuality
What information do they want and need that we are not giving?
How can we improve our information sharing relationships?
Diagnosis of problems, joint solutions, advisory & consultancy services
Value-added, Quality and Just-in-time
Benchmarking & competitive superiority
Mutual increases in profitability
Security and safety
Marketing information system effectiveness
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Marketing Communication Model
CommunicationChannels• Promotion mix• Advertising• Personal selling• Sales promotion• PublicityOther elements• Product, sourcing of
supply, brand, package, price,
• Distribution• Hard & soft data &
information
Promotion budget,
objectives, messages
Results• sales• communication• attitudes
MarketerTx
ConsumerAudiences
Rx
Its not the productit’s the presentationIts not the productit’s the presentation
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Communication and Purchase Order Processing/Buying
Data collection and evaluation to analysing requirements
Decide features, quantity and quality
Specification and tendering
Sourcing and supplier appraisal
Contracting and purchase method
Order routines and transactions
Delivery scheduling & receiving
Accounts payable processing
Auditing
Supplier collaborations
Evaluation of performance
Data flowsSources/sinksData storesProcessesEvents acting on
Data flowsSources/sinksData storesProcessesEvents acting on
Communication
between
marketing &
sales?
Communication
between
marketing &
sales? Wisdom/expertise
Knowledge
Information
Capta
Data
Wisdom/expertise
Knowledge
Information
Capta
Data
Checkland & HowellsCheckland & Howells
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Communications elements
codecode
idea meaning
decodedecode
channel/mediachannel/media
methodmethod
receiverreceiversendersender
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Communications elements (Shannon & Weaver)
Code
facts, opinions, emotions, intentions
evaluation of Rx
facts, opinions, emotions, intentions
evaluation of Rx
channel - method/mediumchannel - method/medium
Noise: physical, psychologicalNoise: physical, psychological
Tx RxDecode
Perception of Tx & the information, opinions,
predispositions, impressions,
capacities
Perception of Tx & the information, opinions,
predispositions, impressions,
capacities
Purposes Simplex, half-duplex, duplex Complexity of information & GIGO Situational factors Channel capacities & audience Selectivity (out/in filtering) Sequencing (good news/bad news) Feedback
Purposes Simplex, half-duplex, duplex Complexity of information & GIGO Situational factors Channel capacities & audience Selectivity (out/in filtering) Sequencing (good news/bad news) Feedback
Symbols
Rules for use
Technology
Culture
Symbols
Rules for use
Technology
Culture
Other Barriers
Richness of medium
Message overload
Message formulation
Perception
Other Barriers
Richness of medium
Message overload
Message formulation
Perception
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Social interaction elements
What is said and tone of voice Eye contact Posture and body contact Proximity and positioning Physical appearance Facial movements and gestures
What is said and tone of voice Eye contact Posture and body contact Proximity and positioning Physical appearance Facial movements and gestures
FeedbackFeedback
B's social behaviour
A's social behaviour
Person Aperceptionpersonalitymotivationattitudes
Person Bperceptionpersonalitymotivationattitudes
FeedbackFeedback
Situational factors e.g. history,role requirements, norms, ideology, place, technology
Situational factors e.g. history,role requirements, norms, ideology, place, technology
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Send reinforcements. We're going to advance!
Confused presentation
Differences in status
Affective relationships
Unfamiliar language
Noise - physical/environmental, psychological
Assumptions and interpretations
Overload
Interpersonal tension
Known from
experience. Is
there any
need to re
search this
further?
Known from
experience. Is
there any
need to re
search this
further?
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Grapevine and rumour
Personal promotion
Safety valves, fears, anxieties & fantasies
Natural speculation and prophesy, wishful thinking
Power of being 'in the know'
Informal or underground channel (unattributed sources)
Spin doctoring & leaks
Political - shaping and positioning
Dirty tricks, misinformation, wedge-drivers
Unverified, uncertainty, emotional resilience
MustMust
ShouldShould
Nice toNice to
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Channel characteristics
half-duplex channelhalf-duplex channel
one way onlyone way only
simplex channelsimplex channel
two way but not at the same timetwo way but not at the same time
Full-duplex channelFull-duplex channel
Both ways at the same timeBoth ways at the same time
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Take your partners for a negotiation
Point in need of balance
Point in need of balance
ActualstanceActualstance
ActualstanceActualstance
ObjectiveObjective
ObjectiveObjective
Opening or statedstance
Opening or statedstance
Opening or statedstance
Opening or statedstance
Suspicion & Face. NAch, NControl, NAffl
Distributive, integrative & intra-organisational bargaining
Rapid, analytical thinking; objective, neutral, self-resilient, cool, patient
empathy & tact, clarifying, targeting, confidence & trust
problem analysis, listening, questioning
Strategy, tactics.
Adjourning & reformulating. Win-win, win-lose.
Suspicion & Face. NAch, NControl, NAffl
Distributive, integrative & intra-organisational bargaining
Rapid, analytical thinking; objective, neutral, self-resilient, cool, patient
empathy & tact, clarifying, targeting, confidence & trust
problem analysis, listening, questioning
Strategy, tactics.
Adjourning & reformulating. Win-win, win-lose.
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Impression management
Self-image- the way I
thinkI am
Self-image- the way I
thinkI am
Ideal Self- the way I would like
to be
Ideal Self- the way I would like
to be
Real Self- the way
I am
Real Self- the way
I am
Mirror Self- the way I think others
see me
Mirror Self- the way I think others
see me
Group membershipLife-stylesStereotypic & premature judgment
Group membershipLife-stylesStereotypic & premature judgment
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Task & Maintenance Functions in Groups
Task Functions Maintenance functions
Initiating Harmonising
Opinion seeking Compromising
Opinion giving Gate-keeping (opening/closing)
Information seeking Encouraging
Information giving Diagnosing
Clarifying Standard setting
Elaborating Standard testing
Summarising
Consensus testing undermining processes?
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Meetings and agendas
Advisory meeting
Command
Committee
Negotiating
Collegiate
Membership
Purposes
Interactive processes
Expectations
Information sharing & processing
Authority
Accountability
Agenda setting
Membership
Purposes
Interactive processes
Expectations
Information sharing & processing
Authority
Accountability
Agenda setting
Planning
Pre-notification
Preparation
Processing
Recording
Planning
Pre-notification
Preparation
Processing
Recording
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Observing meeting processes?
Chair person
Abdicates position?
Clarifies problem or decision?
Summarises or relates topic?
Asks for, supplies information?
Guides or controls discussion?
Protects minority, low participators?
Gate opening/closing?
Balances discussion?
Reflects feelings?
Expresses own views?
Members
Encourage others, conciliating
Ask questions
Supply ideas, information
Tension release, humour
Review or summarise
Help to guide discussion
Disrupt, interjection, hold the ball, snubbing, antagonism, exasperation
Sleep, low participators
Criticise after the meeting
Members
Encourage others, conciliating
Ask questions
Supply ideas, information
Tension release, humour
Review or summarise
Help to guide discussion
Disrupt, interjection, hold the ball, snubbing, antagonism, exasperation
Sleep, low participators
Criticise after the meeting
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Non-verbal communication
Body contact & proximity (acceptable, expected, taboos, cultural norms)
Posture (attitudes, orientation)
Head nods, Gutterals and grunts
Facial expressions (control? misinterpret?)
Gestures (supportive, emphatic, defensive, aggressive)
Eye contact (acknowledgement, stare)
Appearance & self-presentation
Non-verbal speech - tone, pitch, stress
Content of speech - imperatives & power words, questions
Signalling Interpretation
meaning
Synchronisation
Feedback
Attentiveness
Interpersonal reaction
Emotional states
Replacement of verbals
Signalling Interpretation
meaning
Synchronisation
Feedback
Attentiveness
Interpersonal reaction
Emotional states
Replacement of verbals
How are these
developed & nurtu
red?
How are these
developed & nurtu
red?
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Communication & New Organisational Imperatives
Flat, lean organisations stripped to the core essentials
Absence of hierarchy
Stick to the knitting, non-core, support functions are outsourced
Project team culture - temporary 'structures'
Distributed groups - brought together for particular projects
Connected by ICTs and work collaboratively
Fast reaction to environmental changes
Empowered, autonomous, enthusiastic people
A Learning Organisation?
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Towards the Virtual Organisation?
Discuss the following assumptions
1.All required messages can be transmitted electronically.
2.Most people are willing to use E-forms of communication.
3.An increase in e-communication links overcomes barriers to communication and improves participation.
4.E-networking enables more autonomous & flexible working.
5.Work using communication technologies support the achievement of management goals
Symon G, 2000, Information & communication technologies and the networked organisation - a critical analysis, J. of Occupational & Organisational Psychology 73 (4)
Symon G, 2000, Information & communication technologies and the networked organisation - a critical analysis, J. of Occupational & Organisational Psychology 73 (4)
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Skills of Interviewing
Key skill & activity for managers
Cognition/information processing
Perception (selective)
Preparation, enactment, interpretation
Problem-analysis & decision-making (managerial behaviour)
Information generated through the interview provides data for decision-making
Proposition: training enhances performance – both as an interviewer and interviewee
More than just a conversation
"…. A specific form of two-way communication conducted for a task-related purpose."
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Interview Experience
What is the best & worst experience that you have had
As an interviewer?
As an interviewee?
What made these experiences – best/worst?
What would have prevented & improved the worst experience?
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Types of interview
Research/information gathering
Selection
Counselling/support
Appraisal
Development
Complaint/grievance
Disciplinary
Exit
Research/information gathering
Selection
Counselling/support
Appraisal
Development
Complaint/grievance
Disciplinary
Exit
Approaches & situations
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured
Fixed question
One-to-one
Group
On-line
Stress (validity?)
Private, public (e.g.press, radio, TV)
Approaches & situations
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured
Fixed question
One-to-one
Group
On-line
Stress (validity?)
Private, public (e.g.press, radio, TV)
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Issues
Role as an actor, trigger, interpreter, decision-maker/actor
Interview objectives
Structure & content
Environment (physical & psychological)
Interviewer and interviewee – NPower, NAch, NAffiliation
Data collection & processing strategies
Communication exchange (interviewer-interviewee) – explicit, implicit, verbal & non-verbal
Objectivity-subjectivity
Social action interpretation
Story-telling
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Selection Interview
Psychometric-Objective Assumptions
Eternal optimism
Smooth programmed administration
Measured, controlled, predictable, systematic search often using psychometric techniques
Match evidence of qualities to job
Compare with social process approach
Interplay between selection events
Social & ritual aspects. Audition. Power vetting
Candidate & selector feelings/responses
Intra organisational negotiation & adjustment
Candidate - given fair opportunity
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The GASP Interview
Greeting
Acquiring Information
Supplying Information
Parting
Interviewer Preparation
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Genuine positive regard – Move towards
Calm, neutral, no interruptions, safe.
Maintain rapport
seating voice, eye contact, warmth and body posture.....NVC
Preparation & “contract of interest & expectation”
Smooth gear change
GASP – Greeting & rapport
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Listen more - talk less.
Objectivity, bias, stereotyping & premature judgement
Not adversarial.
Halo, horns and doppleganger
Taking notes
Questioning & preparation
well-structured, open questions closed probe & link direct, leading, intrusive trick and taboo questions
Mental agility
Interview flow & control
Summarising and closure
GASP - Acquiring Information
Strategies
• Frank & friendly
• Interrogation & stress
• Biographical journey
• Problem-scenario
• Individual & panel
Strategies
• Frank & friendly
• Interrogation & stress
• Biographical journey
• Problem-scenario
• Individual & panel
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cutting it short (horns/halo, premature judgement)
equal opportunity to all candidates
intimation of acceptance (verbal + non-verbal)
potential for misunderstanding. No promises.
communicating a decision
hints to attractive candidates (in a competitive situation)
intra-organisational bargaining
the decision in writing
subject to references
Career advice to rejected candidates? Culture?
GASP: Supplying Information
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signal closure - NVC plus
maintain concentration
clarify future steps - the selection schedule
verify
dates - holidays and availabilities
phone, post
stand up, move, parting courtesies
GASP: Parting
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Anderson and Shackleton, Successful Selection Interviewing, Blackwell, 1993 pp 69
“Utilised properly; depending on its exact purpose, the interview emerges as a valid reliable tool in candidate assessment. ..... its flexibility to .... as a medium for mutual preview or as a final stage for negotiation between the parties, renders the interview more useful in selection than narrowly focused definitions of validity & reliability can convey”
Reliability?
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Premature decision
tentative pre-determined views seldom altered at interview
accept/reject within 3-4 min. Evidence to confirm first impression
Weak candidates make average candidates look good
Propositions
practice alone does not improve performance
training and performance review does
The drama may not reflect the job
Panel interviews - defer to influential members
Poor correlation of views when choice is confidential
Psycho tests - strong, belief and practice (cf: evidence).
Validity and Reliability Issues
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Types of interview – Appraisal
Appraisal interview
One person (usually a manager) appraises job performance of another (usually a subordinate) meeting with them to review, give feedback, evaluate and target
Approaches
Tell
Tell and listen
Tell and sell
Joint problem-solving
Mixed model interview
360 degree
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The appraisal process
Establishing the agenda
Pre-interview form filling
The Interview
Action planning
Handling disagreements e.g. grand parenting
Establishing the agenda
Pre-interview form filling
The Interview
Action planning
Handling disagreements e.g. grand parenting
Manager as counsellor – skilled?
Operational vs. personal counselling
Directive Non-directive
Dependency, confusion & responsibility
Trust & genuine positive regard
Mixed strategy - unstructured component
Opening up & expressing concerns (both)
Defining "problems" & how interviewee sees them
Testing reality & assumptions
Support
Closure & follow-up
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Types of Interviews – COMPLAINT/GRIEVANCE
Moan, gripe, complaint
Grievance - a formal complaint made by an employee against a colleague or the organisation
Problems of "policy and procedure"
Problem perception, information and power/status
I'm OK, You're not OK. "Now I've got you, you SOS"
Neutral processing
Rescue the managers & establish KARMA
Verifying the claim right
Importance of shared, agreed information
Procedural safeguards, formality of interview
Recognising "the person" - perception of self & acting on the problem
Equity – complainant and the "accused" – discrimination issue
Verifying the claim right
Importance of shared, agreed information
Procedural safeguards, formality of interview
Recognising "the person" - perception of self & acting on the problem
Equity – complainant and the "accused" – discrimination issue
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Types of interview – DISCIPLINE - 1
Disciplinary action Formally sanctioned,
organisational action. Individual informed that work-related behaviour is not acceptable.
Rights not to be unfairly dismissed
Natural justice & reasonableness in procedure
"Fair" dismissal"Conduct, capability, redundancy, statutory rule, some other big reason
Informal, prior supervisory communication & guidance
Minor conduct counter to contract
Gross misconduct (severed root)
Importance of evidence
Defendant rights – law & natural justice
Equitable procedure
Formal, systematic interviews
Representation
Corrective versus punitive action
Interview tension, reaction & "afront"
Recording &communication
Importance of evidence
Defendant rights – law & natural justice
Equitable procedure
Formal, systematic interviews
Representation
Corrective versus punitive action
Interview tension, reaction & "afront"
Recording &communication
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Dissertation Ideas
The management of sales communications
Communicating & managing redundancies
Auditing organisational communication
Counselling and mentoring
The phenomenon of email
Communicating corporate strategy - case investigation
Communication for new product research
Environmental management and public relations
Brand communication and evaluation
Training and self-improvement for interviewing