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Figure 1:- Uses of Sulphuric Acid,
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MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC
ACID
The manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry is
through the contact process. The raw materials used to manufacture the acid are
sulphur,air and water.
The acid is produced in 3 stages:-
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STAGE 1:
THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE
a)This can be obtained through two methods:-
a)Heating liquid sulphur with hot air in a furnace.
S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
b) Heating sulphides in air, for example:
4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g)2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)SO2 is a side-product in the extraction of the
metal, iron. [Fe2O3 is reduced to iron with coke]
Zinc pyrites can also be heated in air as follows:
2ZnO (s) + 3O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2ZnO (s)
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STAGE 2:
FORMATION OF SULPHUR
TRIOXIDE
a) Pure, dry sulphur dioxide is mixed with dry oxygen in
excess and passed over vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 as
catalyst at a temperature of 450C - 550C and a
pressure of 1 atmosphere. The conditions ensure the
maximum production of sulphur trioxide:
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g)b)The reaction takes place in a heat converter.
c) Excess air is used to ensure higher percentage of SO3
produced.
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STAGE 3:
FORMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID
a) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated
sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7.
This is carried out until the concentrated sulphuric
acid has reached a concentration of 99.5%.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) H2S2O7 (l)
b)The product, oleum will not show any property of an
acid. This is because, oleum will not ionise without
the presence of water.c) Water is then added to the oleum to produce
concentrated sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)
d)The reaction in (a) and (b) is equivalent to dissolving
sulphur trioxide in water.
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)
e)However, this reaction is not carried out in industry.This is because the reaction is too vigorous.
f) It produces a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This
mist is corrosive and pollutes the air.
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CONTACT PROCESS:
Figure 2:- Flow chart of Contact
Process
Burnt in air
O2 , V2O5, 450C, 1
Concentrated H2SO4
Water
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USES OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY:
The industrial
process in the
Manufactured ofSulphuric Acid
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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE
THE PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
Aim:-
To investigate the properties of ammonia
Examples are ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea. The first t
prepare through neuralisation but urea is produced by the reaction of amm
with carbon dioxide. The reaction involved are as the following:
a) 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(s) ammonium sulphate
b) NH3 (g) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) ammonium nitrate
c) 2NH3 (g) + CO2(g) (NH2)2CO (s) + H2O (l) urea
Having a low melting point,
liquefied ammonia makes a
good cooling agent in
refrigerators and air
conditioners.
It neutralizes the organic acids
formed by microorganisms in latex,
thereby preventing coagulation
and preserving the latex in liquid
form.
Ammonia is converted to nitric acid in the Ostw
process:
1) ammonia is first oxidised to nitrogen
monoxide, NO, by oxygen in the presence
platinum as catalyst at 900C.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2(g)Pt/900C 4NO (aq) + 6H2O
2) nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to
nitrogen dioxide.
2NO (g) + O2(g) 2NO2 (g)
3) Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen are dissolve
water to produced nitric acid.
a) Nitric acid is manufactured from
ammonia before being used to make
explosive like trinitrotoluene (TNT).
b) Nitric acid, in this case, is reacted with
organic substances like toluene.
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Material:-
0.1 mol dm ammonia solution, 0.1 mol dm sodium
hydroxide solution, ammonia chloride, calcium
hydroxide, concentrated hydrochloric acid, soda lime,distilled water, red litmus paper, Ph paper.
Apparatus:-
Test tubes, beaker, U-tube, Bunsen burner, glass rod,
delivery tube, stoppers.
Procedure:-
a)Preparation of ammonia gas:
1.Some ammonium chloride is mixed with some
calcium hydroxide.
2.The apparatus as shown in Figure 3 is set up
3.The mixture is heated
4.The ammonia gas produced is collected in a few
test tubes. The test tubes containing ammonia
gas must be closed with stoppers.
b) Alkalinity of ammonia:
1.5.0 cm of 1 mol ammonia solution and 5 cm of
0.1 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution are
poured into two separate test tubes.
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2.A piece of pH paper is dipped into the solution in
each test tube.
3.The pH values of both solution are recorded.
c) Colour, physical state, smell and solubility of
ammonia:
1.The colour and physical state of ammonia are
observed.
2.The stopper of a test tube containing ammonia
gas is removed and the smell of the gas is
identified.
3.A test tube containing ammonia gas is inverted
into a beaker of water.
4.All observation are recorded.
d)Density of ammonia:
1. A test tube containing ammonia gas is held
upright and another test rube containing
ammonia gas is held upside down.
2.The stopper of the two test tubes are removed.3.After 20 seconds, a piece of moist red litmus
paper is put at the mouth of each test tube as
shown in figure 5.
4.The colour of the red litmus paper is recorded.
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e)Chemical property of ammonia:
1. One end of a glass rod is dipped into
concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2.The glass rod is then put on top of a test tube of
ammonia gas.
3.Any change taking place is observed.
Observation :-
Section Observation Inference
b)
pH of
ammonia
solution is 10
pH of sodium
hydroxide
solution is 14
ammonia is
weak alkali
sodium
hydroxide is astrong alkali
c) colourlessgas
ammonia is a
colourless
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pungent
smell
water rushed
up and fillsup the whole
test tube
gas with a
pungent
smell
ammonia isvery soluble
in water
d)
moist red
litmus paper
on top of the
upright test
tube does notchange
colour.
Moist red
litmus paper
under the
inverted test
tube turnsblue
Ammonia gas
has escaped
from the
upright test
tube and thus
is slightly less
dense than
air
e) Dense white
fumes are
formed
Ammonia
react with
hydrogen
chloride gas
to form
ammoniumchloride
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PREPARATION OF AMMONIA
FERTILISER
Aim:-
To prepare ammonium sulphate.
The
man
ufacture
of
am
mon
ia
thro
ugh
the
Hab
er
Proc
ess
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Material:-
1 mol dm-2 sulphuric acid, 2 mol dm-3 ammonia
solution, methyl orange, filter paper
Apparatus:-
25.0 cm pipette, burette, conical flask, white tile,
retort stand and clamp, beaker, glass rod,
evaporating dish, filter funnel, Bunsen burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze.
Procedure:-
a)Determining the volume of sulphuric acid that will
neutralize 25.0 cm of ammonia solution:-
1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is
transferred by a pipette to a clean conical flask.
2. Three drops of methyl orange indicator are
added to the alkali. The solution turns yellow.
3. A clean burette is filled with 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric
acid and clamped to a retort stand. The initial
burette reading is recorded.
4.The conical flask with its content is placed on a
white tile below the burette as shown in figure 6
below.
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5. The sulphuric acid is added slowly into the
conical flask. The conical flask is swirled gently
throughout the titration.
6.The addition of sulphuric acid is stopped when
the indicator changes from yellow to orange. The
final burette reading is recorded.
7. The volume of acid needed to completely
neutralize the 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia
solution is calculated. Let this volume V cm.
b)Preparation ammonium sulphate salt:-
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1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is
pipetted into a clean conical flask. No indicator is
added.
2.V cm of 1 mol sulphuric acid is added from theburette to the ammonia solution.
3.The mixture in the conical flask is transferred to
an evaporating dish and heated until a saturated
solution is formed.
4.The hot, saturated salt solution is left to cool for
crystallization to occur.
5.The crystal of ammonium sulphate formed arefiltered, ashed and dried between sheets of filter
paper.
Observation:-
A colourless solution is formed when sulphuric acid is
added to ammonia solution. The crystal obtained are white in colour
Discussion:-
The equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O
(l)
Methyl orange is an acid-base indicator used to
determine the end point of the titration.
The first titration is carried out to determine the
exact volume of sulphuric acid required to
completely neutralize the 25.0 cm of ammonia
solution.
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The salt solution in the first titration is discarded
because it is contaminated by methyl orange.
The ammonium sulphate solution should not be
heated until dryness because ammonium sulphatedecomposes when it is overheated.
The weight of ammonium sulphate obtained from the
activity is always less than the theorical value. This is
because some of the salt is not fully crystallized out
and still remains in the solution.
Other ammonium salt such as ammonium nitrate can
be prepared from the reaction between nitric acidand ammonium solution.
Conclusion:-
Ammonium sulphate and other ammonium fertilizers
can be prepared by neutralizing ammonia solution
with the respective acids.
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
PURE METAL
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PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
Ammonia turns
the damp red
litmus paper
blue.
The gas is less
dense than air
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ALLOY
Meaning and purpose of making alloy:-
Aqueous solutions
ammonia react wit
metal ions (except
K+, and Ca2+) to pr
precipitate of meta
Ammonia is weak alkali
which reacts with dilute
acids in neutralization t
produce salt.
Ammonia gas burns in
oxygen to produce
nitrogen monoxide gas
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
An inverted filter funnel
is used to prevent
suckin back of water
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Alloying is a process of mixing two or more metals
(or mixing metals with element such carbon) which
cannot be separated using physical way
Arrangement of atoms in alloys:-
COMPARE THE HARDNESS OF A
PURE METAL AND ITS ALLOYS
Aim:- To compare the hardness of a pure metal and its
alloy.
Problem Statement:-
Pure metal A Pure metal B
Alloys
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Are alloys harder than pure metal ?
Hypothesis:-
Bronze is harder than cooper.Variables:-
Manipulated: Different types of materials (cooper &
bronze)
Responding: diameter of the dent
Controlled: diameter of steel ball bearing, height of
the weight, mass of the weight.Operational definition:-
1)If the diameter of the dent is smaller, then the
material is harder
Materials:-
2)Cooper block, bronze block, cellophane tape
Apparatus:-
3)Retort stand and clamp, 1-kg weight, metre ruler,
steel ball bearing, thread.
Procedure:-
1)A steel ball bearing is taped onto a cooper blockusing cellophane tape.
2)A 1-kg weight is hung at a height of 50 cm above the
cooper block as shown in the figure 8.
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3)The weight is allowed to drop onto the ball bearing.
4)The diameter of the dent made by the ball bearing
on the cooper block is measured.
5)Steps 1-4 are repeated twice on the other parts of
the cooper block in order to obtain an average value
for the diameter of dents formed.
6)Steps 1-5 are repeated using a bronze block to
replace the cooper block.
7)The reading are recorded in the table.
Results:-
METALDIAMETER OF THE DENT (mm)
1 2 3 average
Cooper 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.9
Bronze 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2
Discussion:-
1)The smaller the diameter of the dent, the harder and
stronger is the material.
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2)The average diameter of the dent made on the
surface on the cooper block is bigger than the bronze
block.
3)Based on the result, bronze is harder than cooper.
Conclusion:-
The hypothesis is accepted.
EXAMPLE OF ALLOYS
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THE RATE OF RUSTING OF IRON,
STEEL, AND STAINLESS STEEL
Aim:-
Stainless steel
steel
Pewter
Bronze
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Procedure:-
1)The nails are rubbed using sandpaper to remove the
rust from the surface of the nails.
2)The iron nail placed in the test tube A, the steel nailin test tube B and the stainless steel nail in test tube
C.
3) A 5% jelly solution is prepared by adding 5 g of jelly
into 100 cm of boiling water. A few drops of
potassium hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution are then
added to the jelly solution.
4)The hot jelly solution is poured into the three testtubes until all the nails are fully immersed.
5)The test tubes are placed in a test tube rack and left
aside for three days. The intensity of the blue colour
is observed.
6)All observation are recorded in the table.
Observation:-
Test
tube
Intensity of blue
colourInference
A Very High Rusting occurs very fastB Low Rusting occurs slowlyC Nil No rusting occurs
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9)Rusting of iron is an example of corrosion. When
corrosion occurs, the metal loses electrons to form
metal iron.
Conclusion:-
Iron rust faster than steel. Stainless steel does not
rust. Hypothesis is accepted.
COMPOSITONS OF ALLOYS &THEIR USES
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SYNTHETIC POLYMER & IT USES Synthetic polymers are polymers made in industry
from chemical substances.
Monomer
acid amino
Eg: in
muscle, skin,
silk, hairs,
wools, and
furs
Monomer
glucose
Eg: in starch
and cellulose
Monomer
isoprene
(2-methylbuta-1,3
diene)
Eg: in latex
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Many of the raw materials for synthetic polymers are
obtained from petroleum, after refining and cracking
process.
WHY USE SYNTETIC POLYMERS
IN DAILY LIFE?
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
RESULTING FROM THE DISPOSAL
OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
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GLASSGlass:-
The major component of glass is silica or silicon
dioxide, SiO2 which found in sand.ri
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TYPES, COMPOSITION,
PROPERTIES, AND USES OF
GLASS
GLASSCOMPOSITI
ONPROPERTIES USES
Soda lime glass
SiO2 70%
Na2O 15%
CaO 10%
Others 4%
Low melting
point
Mouldable into
shapes
Cheap
Breakable
Can withstand
high heat
Glass
container
Glass panes
Mirror Lamps and
bulbs
Plates and
bowls
Bottles
Lead glass SiO2 70% High density Containers for
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(crystal)Na2O 20%
PbO 10%
and refractive
index
Glittering
surface
Soft
Low melting
point (600C)
drinks and
food
Decorative
glass
Crystalglassware
Lens for
spectacles
Borosilicate glass
(Pyrex)
SiO2 80%
B2O3 13%
Na2O 4%
Al2O3 2%
Resistant to
high heat
&chemical
reaction
Does not break
easily Allow infra-red
rays but no
ultra-violet
rays
Glass
apparatus in
lab
Cooking
utensils
Fused silicate
glass
SiO2 99%
B2O3 1%
High melting
point (1700C)
Expensive
Allow
ultraviolet topass through
Difficult to melt
or mould into
shape
Scientific
apparatus like
lens on
spectrometer
Optical lens
Lab apparatus
CERAMICSCeramics:-
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Ceramic is manufactured substances made from clay
that is dried, and heated in a kiln at a very high
temperature
The main component of clay is aluminosilicate(aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide) with small
quantities of sand and feldspar. Unlike glass, ceramic
cannot be recycled.
Kaolinite is a high quality white clay that contains
hydrated aluminosilicate, Al2O32SiO22H2O.
THE DIFFERENT CLASES OF
CERAMIC
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THE USES OF IMPROVED GLASS
AND CERAMICS FOR SPECIFIC
PURPOSES
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
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A composite material is structural material
formed by combining two or more materials with
different physical properties, producing a
complex mixture.
They are used to make various substances in
daily life because of the following reasons:-
a)Metals corrode and are ductile and malleable
b)Glass and ceramic break easily
c)Metal are good conductors but have high
resistant, leading to loss of electrical energyas heat.
d)Plastic and glass can withstand heat to a
certain level only
COMPOSITE
MATERIAL
COMPONEN
T
PROPERTIES
OF
PROPERTIES OF
COMPOSITEUSES
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COMPONENT
Reinforced concrete
concrete hard but
brittle
low tensile
strengh
steel strong in
tensile
strength
expensive
can corrode
stronger
higher tensile
strength
does not
corrode easily cheaper
can be
moulded into
shape
can withstand
very high
applied force
can support
very heavy
load
construction of
road
rocket
launching pads
high-risebuildings
Superconductor
Cooper(ll) oxide
Yttrium
oxide
Barium
oxide
Insulator ofelectricity
Conductselectricity
without
resistance
when cooled
by liquid
nitrogen
Magneticallylevitated
train
Transformer
Electric
cable
Computer
parts
Photochromic glass
Glass Transparen
t
Not
sensitiveto light
Silver
chloride
or silver
bromid
e
Sensitive
to light
Reduce
refraction of
light
Control theamount of
light passed
through it
auto.
Has the
ability to
change
colour and
become
darker when
exposed toultraviolet
light
Information
display
panels
Lightdetector
device
Car
windshields
Optical lens
Fibre optics Glass
with
low
refracti
on
Transparen
t
Does not
reflect
light rays
Low material
cost
Reflect light
rays and
allow to
Transmit
data using
light waves
in
telecommuni
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index
Glasswith
higher
refracti
ve
index
travel along
the fibre
Can transmit
electronic
data or
signal, voiceand image
cations
Fibre glass
glass high
density
strong but
brittle
non-
flexible
polyest
er
plastic
light
flexible
inflammabl
e
elastic but
weak
high tensile
strength
moulded and
shaped
inert to
chemicals
light, strong,
tough
non-
flammable
impermeable
to water
resilient
flexible
car bodies
helmets
skies
rackets
furniture