23 Godedzor, a Late Ubaid-reLated SettLement in …...Godedzor, a late ubaid-related settlement in...

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Godedzor, a late ubaid-related settlement in the southern caucasus 381

Godedzor, a Late Ubaid-reLated SettLement in the SoUthern CaUCaSUS

ChristineChataigner,maison de l’orient et de la méditerranée, lyon, France Pavelavetisyan,institute of archaeology, Yerevan, armenia

giulioPalumbi,università, la sapienza, rome, italyhans-PeteruerPmann,university of tübingen, Germany

introduCtion

the2004discoverybyaFrench-armenianmissionofthesiteofgodedzorinsoutheasternarmenia(vorotanvalley),whichproducedpaintedsherds,someofwhicharerelatedtoalatephaseoftheubaidperiod,aswellaschaff-temperedwareinabundance,castsnewlightontherelationsthatexistedattheendofthefifthmillenniumbetweentranscaucasiaandthenorthernneareast.

theChalcolithicperiod(fifthtothefirsthalfofthefourthmillenniumb.c.)remainsamongtheleastunderstoodphasesofdevelopmentintheprehistoryoftranscaucasia.therecentproposalbyKiguradzeandsagona(2003)tofixthebeginningsoftheChalcolithicatabout4800b.c.appearsreasonableinrelationtoneareasternchronology.thesioniculturalcomplex,whichshouldrepresenttheearlyChalcolithicperiod(approx.4800–4000b.c.)intheKurabasin(Kiguradze2000;Kiguradzeandsagona2003)andthemiddlearaxesvalley(badalyanetal.2004;narimanov1987),isfeaturedbyflimsystructuresandagrit-temperedpotteryproduction(obsidianisverycommoninthepaste),decoratedwithincisedrims,knobs,andcombingoftheexternalsurfaces.atthesameperiodinthesteppesofazerbaijan,theuseofplanttemperinpotteryiswidespread,andthepresenceofred-slippedware(ilanlytepe,Kyullitepe,etc.),dalmaimpressedware(ilanlytepe,ezgennitepe,etc.),anddalmapaintedware(lowerlevelofalikemektepesi)areevidenceofcontactswithnorthwestiran(narimanov1987).

geograPhiCalloCation

thevorotanrivertakesitssourceatabout3,000mabovesealevelonthehighvolcanicplateausofsyunik,inthesoutheastofthelesserCaucasus.itcrossesvastoutcropsofobsidian(thesatanakarandsevkarvolcanos)beforeflowingintoawideglacialvalleyorientednortheast–southwest.thesiteofgodedzorissituatedhere,atanaltitudeofabout1,800mabovesealevel,northwestofthevillageofangeghakot,ontheupperterraceofacanyon,cutinthebasalticlavaflows.theareaoccupiedbythesitehasservedforseveralyearsasabasaltquarry,andalargepartofthearchaeologicalremainshasbeendestroyed.arescueexcavationwasthuscarriedoutinoneofthemostthreatenedsectors;buttheextensionofthearea,onwhichChalcolithicsherdswerediscovered(approx.12ha),giveshopethatotherzonesofoccupationmayhavebeenpreserved.

attheoutletofthecanyonafordenablesanimportantroadfromthesteppesofazerbaijan(regionofagdam)tocrossthevorotan(fig.23.1)andtofollowthevalleyofoneofitstributariesinthedirectionofthebichenakpass,whichislocallytheonlyroutetowardthearaxvalleytothesouth(nakhichevanregion).theinhabitantsofgod-edzorthussettlednearamajoraxisofcommunication,whichcrossesthemountainsofZangezourfromeasttowestandlinkstheKurabasintothatofthearax.innakhichevan,thislineofcommunicationjoinsthemainroutefromeasternturkey(erzurum),whichfollowsthevalleyofthearaxandleadstonorthwestiran(tabriz),crossingthearaxatdjulfaandedgingtowardthelakeurmiabasin.

382 c. chataiGner, P. avetisYan, G. Palumbi, and h.-P. uerPmann

1thedatingofthedeepesthorizons,reachedin2005and2006,isinprogress.

Figure23.1.mainroutesofcommunicationbetweentheregionofgodedzorandthenorthernneareast

FieldworKandstratigraPhy

in2004,aninitialrescueexcavationwascarriedoutontheupperterraceofgodedzor,whichhadbeenpartlydestroyedbybulldozers.theremainsofacircularbuildingwithstonewallswerebroughttolight,withanoccupa-tionfloorcoveredwithobsidianartifacts,objectsusedforgrinding,andcrudepotterywithahighcontentofplanttemper.inanexcavationbelowtheterrace,amongthemanysherdsthatprobablycamefromahabitationdestroyedbythebulldozers,charcoalwasfoundthatwasdatedto4,610±35b.p.,thatis,3500–3347cal.b.c.(ly-2760),1whichconstitutesaterminus ante quemforthesite.

in2005and2006,excavationswereundertakenonaplatformadjacenttotheprecedingexcavation.twotrench-esof45sq.meach(aandb)wereopened,whichrevealedtwophasesofoccupation:

1. between0and50/55cm,aconstructionlevelofthemid-firstmillenniumb.c.withlargerectangu-larbuildingshavingdouble-facedwallsandapavedfloor,onwhichwasfoundpotteryoftheironageandtheachaemenidperiod;

2. between50/55and95to150cmindepthaccordingtothesector(virginsoilwasnotreached),thefoundationsoftheprecedingwallshaddisturbedalevelthatproducedafewcircularwallscon-structedofasinglerangeofstonesandalargeamountofChalcolithicmaterial,includingchaff-temperedware,manyclayandbonespindlewhorls,severalclayhearthstands,andboneartifactswithinciseddecoration.

theseremainsareevidenceofthepresenceatgodedzorofamaterialculturethatiscompletelydifferentfromthetranscaucasiancomplexofsioniandisrelatedtotheneareasterntradition.wethusattempttodefinethefollow-ing:

1) theelementsofthisubaid-relatedpresence,

2) theexchangenetworksinwhichthegodedzorcommunitywasinvolved,and

3) thepracticalmeansofinteraction.

materialCultureandubaid-relatedelementsatgodedZor

thematerialcultureofgodedzorisobviouslyofneareasternaffinity,buttheexactlinkswiththeubaidareseenonlyinthepottery,andonlyinalimitedway.noelementoftheubaidmaterial-cultureassemblageispresentatgodedzor,forexample,tripartitehouses,bentclaynails,cone-headedclayfigurines,claysickles,slingballs,orclaytokens(Jasim1985;stein1994:37).theinhabitantsofgodedzorseemrathertobelongtooneofthe“ubaid-related”communitiesthatdevelopedduringthefifthmillenniumattheperipheryofthesyro-mesopotamianworld.

plain Ware

alltheChalcolithicpotteryfromgodedzorishandmade,andthepotsaregenerallyhandbuilt(especiallyinthecaseofthemediumandlargevessels)bymeansofsuperimposingslabsofclay;theseoftenbreakatthejunctionpoint.insomecases,especiallywhenslipswereapplied,thepresenceoffineparallellinesonthesurfacessuggeststhatsomeslow-rotationdevicewasalsousedinthefabricationprocess.mostofthepotshavebeenhastilyandroughlymadewithoutanyparticularcaretakeninthesurfacetreatment,thefinishing,orotheraestheticorformaldetailsoffabrication.

technological Features

Chaff-temperedware

thisisthemostcommongroupinthegodedzorpottery.thepotsarecharacterizedbytheconstantandabun-dantpresenceofchaff(morethan90%)intheclay,andseedimpressionsarealsosometimesvisible.Plantinclu-sionsrangefromsmallormediumtoverycoarse,andgenerallytheirdimensionsvaryinaccordancewiththedimen-sionsofthevesselandthewidthofthecrosssections(fig.23.2a).rarely,mineralinclusions(tinyfragmentsofobsidian,fineandmediumblacksand,micainclusions,andmedium/coarsepebbles)areseenintheclay.

externalsurfacesareoftencharacterizedbyreddish,gray,orblackishpatchesthatcouldhavebeentheresultofopenfiringandofuncontrolledfiringatmospheres.therearealsocasesofsherdswithsingle(externalorinternal)verydarkorblacksurfaces,whichcouldsuggestalternatingfiringatmospheres,butitisstillnotclearwhetherthisbicoloredeffectwasobtaineddeliberately.internalandexternalsurfacescolorsrangefrompink(2.5yr6/4,7/6,7/8;5yr6/4,6/6,6/8,7/4,7/6,7/8;5yr7/6;10r6/6,6/8),toreddishbrown(10r5/8;2.5yr5/6,5/8),tobrown(2.5yr5/4;5yr5/3;7.5yr7/6),toorange(2.5yr6/6,6/8),andtobuff(10yr7/2,7/4).Crosssectionsoftenshowanon-oxidizedgraytoblackishcore,whichconfirmsthatfiring(perhapsbecausetoobrieforcarriedoutatlowtemperatures)didnotmanagetoattainfullyoxidizingatmospheres.surfacetreatmentandfinishingareunusualandgenerallyconsistofwet-smoothingandslip-burnishing.slipsareoftenverydifficulttodetect,asthetinyfilmofclayisoftenthesamecolorastheclayusedtomakethevessel.burnishingispresentonlywhenthesurfaceisslipped.

suchpoorlyfired,straw-temperedpottery,theuseoftheslowwheel,andtherarityofdecoratedvesselsarefeaturescommonnotonlytothewholeofthesyro-mesopotamianworldinthelateubaidperiod,butalsotoitsperiphery,inthenorthernandcentralZagros(akkermansandschwartz2003;rova1999–2000;henrickson1983).thistrendhasbeenrelatedtothenewneedsoflarge-scaleandlow-costpotteryproductionandthemassiveuseofchafffortemperingpurposesallowingashorterfiringtimeandthesavingoffuel.

Cream/white-slippedware

Cream/white-slippedware,practicallyidenticaltothecoarsechaff-temperedware,ischaracterizedbythefrequentpresenceofathick,whitishcreamorpinkishslip(10yr8/3,8/4)ontheexternalsurfacesofthevessels(mediumandlargejarsonly).theseareessentiallycontainersthatcouldhavebeenintendedforthetransportorconservationoffoodandproduce,anditispossiblethatthisspecialsurfacetreatmentwasintendedtorenderthecontainersmoreprotectiveandhygienicforthestorageoffood.

Chaff-and-grit–temperedware

Chaff-and-grit–temperedwareischaracterizedbythepresenceofbothmediumandveryfineplantinclusions(butcoarseplanttemperissometimesalsopresent)andmineraltemper(40/50%),whichconsistsofsmallpebbles,grayorblacksandprobably(takingintoaccounttheirpercentages)intentionallyaddedtotheclay(fig.23.2b).theremainingtechnologicalfeaturesareverysimilartothosealreadydescribedforthechaff-temperedware.

grit-temperedware

grit-temperedwareischaracterizedbythealmostexclusivepresenceoffineandmediummineraltemper(coarseinclusionsarerare)consistingofsmall(whitish,black,orgray)sandparticlesandmicainclusions.Colorsurfacesvaryfrompink(5yr6/6,7/4,7/6)tolightbrown(7.5yr6/4),tobrown(5yr5/3,5/4,6/6),toreddishbrown(10r5/4),todarkgray(7.5yr5/1,5/2,5/3).usuallyvesselsfromthisgrouphavethinnersectionsthanthoseoftheothergroups.

decoration

afewsherds,whichbelongtothechaff-temperedorthechaff-and-grit–temperedgroups,aredecoratedwithap-pliqueorimpressedmotifs.sherdswithappliquepresentsmall(2cmmaximum)circularandovallumps/pelletsofclaystuck(apparentlywithoutfollowinganyprecisepattern)ontheexternalsurfaceofthevessel(fig.23.3a).thefinger-impressedpotteryischaracterizedbymedium-sizedfingerimpressionsontheexternalsurfaceofthepot.

somecream/white-slippedwarejarspresentadensenumberofsmallcircularimpressionsontheexternalsur-faceofthebase(fig.23.3b).butratherthanadecoration,thisfeaturecouldhavebeenfunctional,forexample,toprotectagainstslipperyfloorsandsurfaces.suchatechniqueisattestedinthecentralZagrosduringthesehgabiphase(secondpartofthefifthmillenniumb.c.;henrickson1983:fig.53:1).theseappliqueandimpresseddecora-tionshavestronganalogieswiththeproductionsofdalmatepe,onthesouthwesternshoreoflakeurmia,wherethe“dalmasurface-manipulated”potteryseemstobetypicalincontextsofthemid-fifthmillenniumb.c.(hamlin1975;voigtanddyson1992).thispotterystyle,orthediffusionoftheideaforsuchdecoration(perhapssimplertolearnthanwouldbeapaintedstyle),wentthroughsouthernazerbaijanandeasternKurdistanintothenortheasternvalleysofluristan,thendowntheKhorasanroadintothehamrin(abadai–ii)andnorthalongtheZagrospied-

Figure23.2.Ceramictechnologyatgodedzor:(a)coarsechaff-temperedware,(b)chaff-and-grittemperedware

montintotheKirkukarea(nuzi)insmallamounts(henrickson1983,1989).butthispotteryalsodiffused,alongwiththedalmapaintedware,towardnorthernazerbaijan,asitispresentonseveralsitesofthesteppesextendingfromthelesserCaucasustotheCaspiansea(narimanov1987).

morphological repertoire

inthemorphologicalrepertoireofthegodedzorpottery,thereisastrongprevalenceofclosedshapes(jars)overopenones(bowls),bothwithsimplerims.thetypologiesarewelldefined,andthesameprofilesareoftenre-peatedinawiderangeofsizes.Chaff-temperedandchaff-and-grit–temperedjarswithashort,flaringneck,simplerim,andovoidbodyrepresentoneofthemostcommontypesofthelocalrepertoire;veryhighvariabilityisobserv-ableattheangleofjuncturebetweenneckandshoulder(fig.23.4a–f).Fromthepresenceofverythickfragmentsofchaff-temperedware,itispossibletohypothesizethepresenceoflargepithoi.openshapesarerepresentedbyhemi-sphericalbowlswithsimplerimsandbyflatbowlswithconvexwallsandsimplerims(fig.23.4g–h).bothtypesarefabricatedineitherchaff-temperedorinchaff-and-grit–temperedware.

itisimportanttostresstherelativelycommonpresenceoflugsandhandlesonthemediumandlargejars(fig.23.5a–b).moreover,ajarwiththreehandlesontheshoulderhasnoparallelsintheChalcolithicrepertoireseitherinthesouthernCaucasusorintheneighboringregions(northerniranandnorthernmesopotamia;fig.23.5c).lugsandhandlesforeshadowtraitsthatwillbetypicalofthepotteryassemblagesoftheearliestKura-araksculture(Kigu-radzeandsagona2003).

itisstilltooearlytohypothesizeontheexistenceofconnectionsandcontinuitiesbetweenthegodedzorceram-icsandthelaterKura-araksones.handlesonthegodedzorceramicsindicatethebasicneedfortransportability,

Figure23.3.Ceramicdecorationatgodedzor:(a)appliquemotifs(chaff-temperedorchaff-and-grit–temperedgroups),(b)impressedmotifs(cream/whiteslippedgroup)

Figure23.4.morphologicalrepertoireofgodedzorceramics:(a–e)jarswithlowevertednecks,(f)jarwithhighverticalneck,(g)hemisphericalbowlwithslightlyinvertedrim,(h)hemisphericalbowlwithevertedrim

understandableinasocialandeconomicmilieuthatwasprobablycharacterizedbytranshumanceandterritorialmo-bility.thesesamepracticesandwaysoflifewillalsobecommonamongthelaterKura-arakscommunities.

painted Ware

amongthepaintedsherdsfoundsofarintheChalcolithiclevelofgodedzor,onlyaminorityarerelatedtotheubaidtradition(“ubaid-likepaintedpottery”),mostbeingofregionalfabrication,fromthebasinoflakeurmia.

ubaid-like Painted Pottery

onlyahandfulofsherdsbelongtothisgroup.theyarecharacterizedbyaveryfineclaywithextremelysmallgritormicainclusions.thesectionsofthebodysherdsareusuallyverythin,andfiringmusthavereachedveryhightemperatures.externalsurfacesarewhiteorcreamslipped(2.5y8/3,8/4,8/6;10yr8/3),whiletheinternalsurfacesareplainandpink,lightbuff,orgreenish.thepaintisdarkbrownorblack,andthemotifsonthesherdsrecoveredsofarconsistofsmall,superimposedblacktriangles(fig.23.6).

allthefragmentsretrievedsofarbelongtosmall-sizedjars.thesetriangularmotifsfindcloseanalogieswiththosefoundinsomemesopotamiansettlementsoftheubaid3period(e.g.,eriduiX;safar,mustafa,andlloyd1981),butappearalsotobetypicalofthelateubaiddecorativestyleofthesecondhalfofthefifthmillennium.the

Figure23.6.ubaid-likepaintedware

Figure23.5.lugsandhandles:(a)potwithalowevertedneckandalugontherim,(b)jarwithbasesofaloophandleontheshoulder,(c)three-handledjar

closestparallelshavebeenfoundattellabadaii–i(Jasim1985:fig.151:14),tepegawraXii(tobler1950:pl.139),andtellleilanvib(schwartz1988:pl.16e).

northwest iranian Painted Pottery

thenorthwestiranianpainted-potterygroupischaracterizedbyawhitish/yellowishslip(10yr8/2,8/3)ontheexternalsurfaces.internalsurfacesandcrosssectionstendtobepinkorlightyellow,andthecoreisalwaysfullyoxidized.thisisfine,well-firedpottery,theclaybeingcompactwithmixedinclusionsconsistingofmediumandfinechaffandfinegritandsometimesexclusivelyveryfinegrit.thepaintismatteblackorverydarkbrown,andthedecorativemotifs(fairlystandardized)consistofbandsofsimplezigzagorwavylinesrunninghorizontallyalongtheneckandthebodyofthecontainer,creatinghorizontalspacesfilledwithtriangular,trapezoidal,andrect-angulardenselycross-hatchedpanels(fig.23.7).

thispaintedpotteryseemstoberepresentedbyonlysmallandmediumjars.thepaintedmotifsandthetech-nologicalfeaturesofthispotterygrouphavecloseparallelswithsimilarproductionsfromtheChalcolithicsitesoflakeurmia(r.biscione,pers.comm.)suchasPisdelitepeortheloweststrataoftappehgijlarC(dysonandyoung1960;belgiorno,biscione,andPecorella1984),beforelinksdevelopedbetweenthisregionandsoutheastturkeyasdemonstratedintheupperstrataofgijlarCandlevelmofgeoytepe(voigtanddyson1992;trufelli1997;helwing2004).

thepotteryofPisdeli,oflocalfabrication,isclearlyinfluencedbythelatestubaidstylesofnorthernmesopota-mia(gawraXii–Xiia)andispartofthehandmade,monochrome-painted,buffwareceramic“co-tradition,”whichincludesthecentralZagroshighlandsandtheKhuzistan(susaa)phase(henrickson1985b).however,theZagroshighlandregion(includingtheurmiabasin)wasclearlynotamonolithic“ubaid-related”cultureareathroughoutmostofthefifthandthebeginningofthefourthmillenniumb.c.,butratheranenvironmentallyandculturallydi-versemosaicwithitsownstronglocalceramicandpresumablyculturaltraditions(henrickson1983:397).

theceramicstylisticsimilaritybetweenthenorthernlowlands(gawra)andhighlands(Pisdeli)attheendoftheubaidperiodmayreflectgawra’sapparentlyactiveinvolvementinalong-distancemineraltradenetwork;thenorthernroutetotheareaofmineralresourcesineasterniranandafghanistancrossesthenorthernZagrossouthoflakeurmia,nearPisdelitepe.

Figure23.7.northwestiranianpaintedware

eXChangenetworKs

mostofthematerialssoughtbytheinhabitantsoftepegawra(lapislazuli,chlorite,serpentine,hematite)areabsentfromthesouthernCaucasus.however,obsidianandcopperarewellattestedinthesoutheastofthelesserCaucasus,wherethesettlementofgodedzorislocated.

copper

anabundanceofcopperoreislocatednotfarfromgodedzorinthesoutheastofthelesserCaucasus,oneithersideofthearax,inarmenia(Kafan,agarak),innakhichevan(vayhir,ourabad),andiniran(ahar,astamal,Zandabad).otherlargedepositsarelocatedmoretothenorthinKarabakhandintheKuravalley(Kedabek).butitisverydifficulttoknowwhentheexploitationofthesedifferentdepositsbegan.theonlyprehistoricevidenceofminingknowninthewholeofthisregioncomesfromvayhir,innakhichevan,anddatestothethird–secondmillen-niab.c.(schachner2002).

inthelowlandsthatsurroundthesouthernendofthelesserCaucasus,afewsitesofthefifthmillennium(gar-galartepesiandChalagantepeinthesteppesofKarabakh;Kültepeiinnakhichevan)haveproducedcopperobjects,butnonehasproducedslagortoolsforcasting.theseappearinthefirsthalfofthefourthmillennium,inparticu-laratleilatepeinthesteppeofKarabakh,asettlementthatinitsarchitectureandobjectsclearlydiffersfromtheneighboringsitesandrevealsacomprehensivearrayofnorthernsyrialateChalcholithic3materials(“pre-Contactphase”;alievandnarimanov2001;lombardandChataigner2004).

atgodedzor,copperobjectsarerarebutpresent(awls),andnotoolorslagprovidesevidenceoflocalcopper-working.itisthesameinthebasinoflakeurmia,wheretheChacolithicsitesofthefifthmillennium(dalmatepe,tepeseavan,Pisdelitepe,etc.)producednocopperobjectsandwherethoseofthefourthmillennium(tepegijlar,geoytepe,yaniktepe,etc.)haveonlyproducedrareexamples(Kroll2002).

inthelastphaseoftheubaidperiod,towhichthesettlementofgodedzorbelongs,itappearsthattheexploita-tionofcopperoresinthesoutheasternlesserCaucasushadnotyettakenplaceandcouldnothavebeenoneofthereasonsfortheestablishmentofthesite.

obsidian

almostallthelithicindustryofgodedzorisinobsidian(98%),thoughtherearesomerareflintandquartzitepieces.

local exploitation

mostoftheobsidianartifactswereworkedfrompebbleswasheddownbythevorotanriveranditstributar-iesfromdepositsnearitssource;manyoftheseobjectsstillhavethe“cortex”ofpebblesrolledbytheriver,withamatte,roundedsurfacemarkedbyrepeatedshocks(fig.23.8f).thesmallnucleifromthesepebblespermittedtheattainmentofflakes(fig.23.8g),smallblades(fig.23.8b)thenretouchedas“knives”(fig.23.8c),points,notchedpieces(fig.23.8e),endscrapers,andburins(fig.23.8d).thelithicindustryofgodedzorischaracterizedbytheabsenceofaspecifictechniqueofdebitage,alargepercentageofartifactshavingnoparticularevidenceofhavingbeenworked,aswellasapredominanceofoccasionalflakeswithretouch.

however,anothergroupofobjects(largerblades)wasknappedfromblocksofobsidiantakendirectlyfromtheoutcrops.thiswasalsothecaseforthreelargeconicalnuclei(fig.23.8a)foundnearabasaltrockwithengravedrepresentations.thepresenceofthesenuclei,foundtogetheronthesite,issurprising,allthemoresosincesofarnotoolhasbeenidentifiedascorrespondingtoremovalsfromthem.itispossiblethattheywereintendedforexport.

diffusion of sevkar obsidian

thechemicalanalysescarriedoutonthesamplesfromthedifferentsourcesofobsidianfromsyunik(satana-kar,sevkar,bazenk)haveshownthattheseflowshavesimilarcompositions,characterizedinparticularbylowcontentsofbarium,zirconium,andyttrium(Kelleretal.1996).thissignature,whichisclearlydistinguishedfromthoseofothersourcesintranscaucasia,wasidentifiedinartifactsfromsoutheasternarmeniaandthesteppesofazerbaijan(badalyan,Chataigner,andKohl2004)andalsoinasmallgroupofartifactsfromtheneareast,group“3c,”identifiedbythelaboratoryatoxfordduringpioneeringanalysescarriedoutinthe1960s(renfrew,dixon,andCann1966).theartifactsinthisgroupallcomefromthebasinoflakeurmia,innorthwesterniran,andbelongtocontextsofthesixthmillennium(hajjiFiruz)orthefifth–fourthmillennia(Kushalitepe,Pisdeliphase;yaniktepe,lateChalcolithic).

thelocationofsource3cwasthenunknown,andvoigt(1983:222)emphasized“thegrosssize(andthereforetheweight)oftheindividualpiecesofobsidianrecoveredfromyanicneolithiccontexts,”ofwhichtheclear/stri-atedmaterialisverysimilartothatofhajjiFiruz,whichsuggeststhatthissourceprobablylieseastoflakeurmia(mountsahandormountsavalan).however,asurveycarriedoutin1999innorthwesterniran,inthemountainsofsavalanandsahendandintheregionsituatedsoutheastofmianeh(aghKend),enabledustotakesamplesofarockthatisgeologicallyobsidianbecauseitconsistsofavitreousmatrixofmorethan70percent,butincludesahighproportionofcrystallizedminerals(25to30%),whichmakesitunsuitableforknapping.

otherwise,theworkcarriedoutinthe1990sbym.J.blackman(nistlaboratory,usa)andJ.Keller(Freiburg,germany),tocharacterizegeochemicallytheobsidiansourcesoftranscaucasia,haveshownthatthedepositsofsyunik(andespeciallysevkar)arethemostprobablesourcesfortheobsidianofgroup3c(Kellerandseifried1990:84;badalyan,Kikodze,andKohl1994:91;blackmanetal.1998).

theobsidianofsevkarthushadaverylimiteddiffusiontowardthenorthernneareast,becauseitisnotknownoutsidethebasinoflakeurmia.moreover,inthisregion,thequantityof3cobsidianappearstodecreaserapidlyovertime.accordingtotherarechemicalanalysescarriedout(table23.1),fromthehajjiFiruzphaseonward,theobsidianoftheregionoflakevanisalsopresent:groups3a/3b(meydanda©/tendurek)and4c(nemrutda©).thisobsidianfromthevanregionispresentinthedalmaphase(firsthalfofthefifthmillennium)andremainsclearlypredominantinthePisdeliandlateChalcolithicphases.

Figure23.8.Chippedstone(obsidian):(a)largeconicalnucleus,(b–c)smallblades,(d)burin,(e)notchedpiece,(f)pebblewithcortex,(g)flake

table23.1.occurrenceofobsidiangroups

sitecultural Phase

Group 3a/3b Group 3c Group 4crenfrew and dixon

1976: 140–41voigt 1983

hajjiFiruz hajjiFiruz 3 ≈ nos.181–83 p.222

yaniktepe hajjiFiruz ≈ — p.222

tamartepe hajjiFiruz 1 no.391

shatanabad dalma 2 nos.395–96

dalmatepe dalma 1 1 nos.397–98

tabiatepe dalma 2 nos.393–94

Kushalitepe Pisdeli 1 1 nos.387–88

Pisdelitepe Pisdeli 3 2 nos.204,326–27

yaniktepelate

Chalcolithic2 2

nos.45,86,195–96

agisstudy2ofthecirculationofobsidianintranscaucasia(bargeandChataigner2003),tobetterunderstandtheimpactofreliefandofdistanceonaccesstothesourcesofobsidianfromthevillages,hasenabledthecreationofamodelforthemostlikelyroutesbetweenthebanksoflakeurmiaandthesourcesofthesevkar,andtoevaluatethetimenecessarytocompletethem:theseroutesgoupthevalleyofthenakhichevanriver,followingexactlytheroadthatpassesneargodedzor;theyenableaccesstotheobsidiandepositsin60to70hoursbyfoot,whichisabout8to10days.Fromgodedzor,onlyonedayisnecessarytoreachthedeposits.

thediffusionofthesevkarobsidianbeyondtranscaucasiaisthuslimitedtothebasinoflakeurmia.thisclearlyindicatesthatthismaterialwasnotintegratedintothetradenetworksthatcrisscrossednorthernmesopotamiaandenabledthelakevanobsidiantobewidelydiffused(CauvinandChataigner1998).however,theconsistentdiffusionofobsidian3cbetweenthesixthandfourthmillenniasuggeststhatthepopulationsestablishedinthebasinoflakeurmiahadspeciallinkswiththoseofthevorotanvalley,thatis,thatthelattereither“delivered”thismate-rial,orthattheythemselvesensuredallorpartofthejourney.thereliefofthehighplateauswherethedepositsarelocatedisverymildandpresentsnodifficultiesforherdsofoxenorsheep,whicharestilltodaymovedseasonallyinsummertothesehighpastures

PraCtiCalmeansoFinteraCtion:sPeCialiZationandmobility

thesiteofgodedzordoesnotappeartobeasedentaryorcontinuouslyoccupiedsettlement,andthemobilewayoflifeofitspopulationwouldhavebeentheconsequenceofasubsistencestrategybasedonherding.thisevidenceforthedevelopmentofpastoralisminnorthwesterniranaroundtheendofthefifthmillenniumispartofawiderphenomenonthatconcernsalargepartoftheZagros.thehypothesisofspecializationandmobilityofthepopula-tionofgodedzorissupportedbyseveralarguments.

location, altitude, scarcity of the architectural evidence

godedzorissituatedat1,800mabovesealevel,ontheupperterraceofthevorotan,inasteppeenvironmentfa-vorableforextensiveherding.thisregioniscoveredbyathicklayerofsnowfromnovembertomarch(fig.23.1).thevillagewasprobablynotoccupiedduringthisperiod.theethnographicsources(mkrtumyan1974)indicatethe

2Functions“cost-weighteddistanceanalysis”and“least-costpathanalysis,”arcgis(esri).

greatdifficultythatthepopulationsofthisregionstillhadatthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytoensurethesurvivaloftheirherdsduringthelongwinters.itisalsopossiblethatapartofthepopulationofgodedzorstayedonthesitethroughthewinter,whilemostoftheherddescendedtotheirwinterpasturesinthelowlands.

thereareveryfewarchitecturalremains:theonlytracesofhabitation,whichbelongtotheupperhorizonoftheChalcolithiclayer,consistofvestigesofcircularwallswithonlyonecourseofstones.

composition of the herd

thefaunalremainsfromgodedzorevaluateduptonowaredominatedbythebonesofdomesticruminants,reaching65percentofabout3,100identifiedspecimens.theremainsofthesmalldomesticruminantsattainabouttwo-thirdsoftheidentifiedsampleand,althoughlessthanone-fifthoftheirboneswerewellenoughpreservedforspeciesidentification,itisworthmentioningthatalmostallofthemarefromsheep.onlyfiveboneswereattributedtothedomisticgoat,andthedomesticpigisonlyidentifiedwiththreebonefragments.thisisimportantwithregardtomobilityoftheherds.inflatterraingoatsarequiteslow,andmobilepastoralistsusuallyconcentrateonraisingsheep,keepingonlysomegoatsasflockleaders(henrickson1985a:16).Pigsaregenerallydifficulttobedirectedandkepttogether.

Cattleweremostimportantasmeatproducers,providingalmost40percentofthetotalweightoftheidentifiedspecimens.however,meatproductionmaynothavebeentheonlypurposeoftheirpresence.incattle,outofsix-teenfirstphalanges,threeshowindicationsthattheanimalswereusedforlabor.amongthesecondphalanges,thisisaratioofoneinfourteen.inaddition,apathologiccattlevertebrawasfound(tomé2005),whichmightalsobecausedbyusingtheanimalfortractionorforloading.asmorethanhalfofthecattlebonesarefromatleastsub-adultanimals,milkandlabormayinfacthavebeenthemainpurposeofcattlehusbandryfortheancientinhabitantsofgodedzor.

withoutdoubt,cattleandsheepwouldhavebeenmostusefulwithinaherdingsystembasedontranshumance,andcattlewouldhavebeenusedfortransportationofheavyloads,asthedeformedvertebrasuggests.

limited role of agriculture

appreciablequantitiesofnakedsix-rowedbarley(hordeum vulgare)andnakedwheat(triticum aestivum)werefoundatgodedzor,butlegumes(lens culinaris,Pisum sativum)aresurprisinglyrare.thescarcityofheavy-dutytools(grindingslabsandpestles)isalsonoticeable.thiscanbeexplainedbythelimitedroleofagricultureatgodedzor.thecerealscouldhavebeenacquiredpartlyfromfarmerswhoweresettledalongthemigrationroute,inexchangefortheshepherds’products(milk,cheese,meat,wool,textiles,skins).small-scalecultivationinthesum-merpasturelandsisattestedamongthenomadicpastoralistsoftheCentralZagros(henrickson1985a).

obsidian exchange

threelargeobsidiannucleiwerefoundgroupedtogetheronthesitereadyforlateruse,probablyinthelakeurmiabasin(winteringregion),astheanalysesofprovenanceindicatetheexportationofobsidianfromsevkartowardthisregion.notethatthismaterialdoesnotseemtohavebeenaproductexpresslysoughtbytheinhabit-antsofgodedzorforusingintrade,becauseitdidnotdiffusebeyondthebasinoflakeurmia.obsidianappearstohavebeenabyproductofthepastorallifestyle.thehighplateauwheregodedzorissituatedliesnearlargeobsidiandeposits,butonlyalimitedquantity(limitedinparticularbytheweightofthematerialandthefactthatthepackordraftanimalswouldhavebeenalreadyheavilyloadedwithtentsandbelongings)couldhavebeenbroughtdownforpersonaluseorforlocaltrade.

other factors characteristic of nomadic campsites

totheseelements,whichsuggestthemobilityofthepopulationthatlivedatgodedzor,maybeaddedthefea-turesthat,accordingtoabdi(2003:406–07),arecharacteristicofnomadiccampsites:

• theestablishmentofthevillagealongamigrationroute,asthevillagelooksoverthevorotanrivernearwhereitisfordedbytheonlyroutecrossingthispartofthelesserCaucasus,whichleadstothesouthandthearaxvalley;

• arepetitiveseasonaloccupation,suggestedbythethicknessoftheChalcolithiclevel,whichdespitetheabsenceofarchitecturalremainsisnearly1mindepth(withoutreachingvirginsoil)andbytheenormousquantityofmaterial,mainlypottery,whichitcontains;

• aself-sufficienthousehold,indicatedbydiversificationinthemethodsofacquiringfood(herding,agriculture,andhunting)aswellasbydomesticproduction.

huntingplayedanimportantrole.cervus elaphus,bos primigenius,andbison bisoncontributedabout25per-centoftheanimalboneweight.wildboar(sus scrofa),wildsheep(ovis orientalis),wildgoat(capra aegagrus),andtheonager(equus hemionus)wereotherhuntedungulates.thepresenceoflargewildcarnivores—bear(ursus arctos),lion(Panthera leo),andleopard(Panthera pardus)—mightbeconnected,inthatthesepredatorspecieswerehuntedandkilledfortheprotectionofthedomesticanimals.thediversityoftheenvironment(forest,steppe,mountain)frequentedbythesewildanimalscouldcorrespondtothenumberofdifferentecologicalnichescrossed(andexploited)duringtheseasonalmovementsofthegroup.

domesticproductionwasrelatedtotheexploitationofsecondaryproductsoftheherd:

• wool:themainworkingtoolsarespindlewhorlsandotherbonetools(awls,pins,combs),whichsuggeststhatwoolprocessingandtextileproductionwereamongthemainactivitiescarriedoutinsitu;

• milkandderivedproducts:possiblythethree-handledpotwasusedformakingbutteroryogurt.

ComParisonwithtransCauCasianCultures

intranscaucasia,thesocietyrepresentedatgodedzordiffersineverywayfromthosethatdevelopedinthebasinsofthearaxandtheKura(culturesofaratashenandshulaveri-shomutepe)inthesixthtothebeginningofthefifthmillenniumb.c.thesewerecharacterized,inparticular,byarchitectureinpiséormudbrickandagriculturethatwashighlydevelopedinquantityandvariety(triticum monococcum,tr. dicoccum,tr. aestivum/durum,tr. sphaerococcum,tr. spelta,avena sativa,Panicum miliaceum;lisitsynaandPrischepenko1977;Chataigner1995).

thesionicomplex,whichsucceededthearatashenandshulaveri-shomutepeculturesinthefirsthalfofthefifthmillennium,isalsoindicativeofadevelopmenttowardapastoralwayoflife:near-absenceofconstructedarchitecture,postholesindicativeoflightconstructions,circularditchesconsideredtobeenclosuresforlivestock(varazashvili1992).thepottery,however,isverydifferentfromthatofgodedzor,asmuchinthetechnique(min-eraltemperispreponderant)asintheshapesordecoration(notchesontherim,rowsofperforationsorprotuberanc-es).thisiswhythepotteryassemblageatgodedzor,whichconsistsofcoarsechaff-temperedwareandfinepotterywithpainteddecoration,appearstobeexogenous.itisprobablethatthepaintedpotterywouldhavebeenbroughtfromhome,whilethecoarsepotterywasmadeinsitu;butbothwaresbelongtothesameculturalfacies.thefactthatthewholepotteryassemblagemovedwouldbeanotherproofofmobility.

develoPmentoFPastoralismattheendoFtheFiFthmillenniumb.C.

nomadismandmobilitywerealocaltraditionalbehavioroftheZagrospopulationfromthePre-Potteryneo-lithiconward,butthisphenomenonexpandedabruptlyatabouttheendofthefifthmillennium.

early pastoralism (pre-pottery neolithic)

theZagrosmountainsaregenerallyconsideredtobeoneofseveralregionswherenomadicpastoralismfirstemerged.thecentralpartofthesemountainsandtheKhuzistansteppehaveyieldedafewneolithicsites(ganj

dareh,tepeguran,sarab,tepetula’i),whoseearliestlevelsofoccupation(belongingtotheeighthorseventhmillenniumb.c.)aredescribedasthesemi-permanentorseasonalcampsitesofherders(henrickson1985a:25–26;hole1987:47;bernbeck1992;Cribb1991:216–18;abdi2003:397,409).theperipherallocationofthesesites—whichmakesthemunsuitableforagriculturalactivitiesbutappropriateforpastoralexploits(abdi2003:409)—theabsenceofhouses,alongwithapreponderanceofsheepandgoatbonesarethemainlinesofevidencethatsuggestaneconomybasedonpastoralism,eithertranshumantorvillagebased(hole1987;bernbeck1992).

trueagriculturalvillagesalsoappearintheuplandsoftheZagrosataboutthesametime(eighthmillenniumb.c.),asexemplifiedbytepeabdulhosein,avillagewitharchitectureandground-stoneartifacts(includingmor-tarssetinmudstands),locatedat1,600mabovesealevelinamountainvalleyofluristan(hole1987:49).sed-entismgraduallyexpandedinthesemountainsbythelateneolithicandearlyChalcolithicperiods.thenumberofvillagesincreasedsubstantiallyattheendoftheearlyChalcolithicperiod,reachingitspeakatthemiddleofthefifthmillennium(“earlymiddleChalcolithicperiod,”about4700–4350b.c.;henrickson1985a;abdietal.2002;abdi2003).

expansion of pastoralism (middle chalcolithic)

inthelatefifthmillennium,thetrendwasabruptlyreversed,andthenumberofpermanentsettlementsdroppedprecipitouslyinfavoroftemporarycampsites,perhapsasaresultofadeclineoftheagriculturalregime.theneces-sityofincreasingmobilitytogainaccesstopasturesledtoashiftfromsedentismtonomadism,andtoapastoralmodeofsubsistencebasedonanewsocialorganizationrevolvingaroundanewlyestablishednomadicidentity(abdi2003:397–98).thus,mobilepastoralismbegantobeadoptedonawidescaleintheZagroshighlandsduringthelatterpartofthemiddleChalcolithicperiod(henrickson1985a:27–33;abdi2003:423–25).

thishypothesisofmobilityattheendofthefifthmillenniumb.c.tiesinwiththeobservationsconcerningthesouthofthelakeurmiabasin(helwing2005).intheushnu-solduzvalley,whichextendstothesouthoflakeurmia,thereisclearevidencethat,atsomepointaround4000b.c.,manyandperhapsallofthevillagesscatteredacrossthevalleyfloorwereabandoned.theareawasprobablyoccupiedbynomadicpastoralists,asthisvalleypro-videsexcellentresourcesforherders(danti,voigt,anddyson2004).

accordingtohenrickson(1985a:39–41),thegrowthofmobilepastoralismintheZagroshighlandswasthere-sultofthreeintertwinedprocessesthatoccurredduringthesecondhalfoftheChalcolithicera:populationgrowth,aclimaticshift(coolerandwetterfollowing4600b.c.),andtheeconomicinterestoftheemerginglowlandpolitiesinhighlandresources.thegeneraldeteriorationoftheclimateattheendofthemiddleChalcolithicperiod,accompa-niedbyovergrazing,isalsoemphasizedbyabdi(2003),whoconsidersitlikelythatmoreandmorepeopleturnedthentomobilepastoralismasaviablesubsistencestrategy.

ConClusion

theubaidsocialandculturalphenomenonhasbeendefinedasthefirstinstanceofahomogeneousculturalarea,despitelargeregionalvariability(Frangipane2001).thisphenomenonmayhavebeenrelatedtotheexpansionofpoliticalandeconomicrelationswith(andinfluencesfrom)southernmesopotamiansettlementsduringtheubaid3andubaid4periods,incoincidencewiththeemergenceofpowergroupsthatestablishedformsofcontrolandcompetitionforlocalandexoticresources(butsee,e.g.,Karsgaardthisvolume,foranalternativeperspectiveontheemergenceofubaidmaterialculture).

withthearchaeologicaldataavailableatpresent,itispossibletohypothesizetheexistenceofcomplexsocietiesfromtheendofthefifthmillennium,whenprocessesesofsocialstratificationandspecializationofproductionwereslowlytakingplacethroughunequalaccesstoandmanipulationofmaterialandideologicalresources(rothman2001;akkermansandschwartz2003).thisisclearnotonlyinthesyrianandmesopotamiansettlements,butalsointhemoreperipheralareasofeasternanatolia(de©irmentepe)andpossiblyalsoinnortherniran(helwing2005).itisalsoatthistimethatthelong-distancerelationsbetweenthemesopotamianlowlandsandthesurroundingre-gionsofthemountainsandhighlands,fromthetaurustotheZagros,becamemoreconsolidatedandcontinuousthanbefore.

thepotteryproductionofgodedzorfitswellintothispictureofgrowinginterregionalrelationshipsanden-largedculturalhorizons.thechaff-temperedproductionreflectssimilartechnologiesthatwerewidespreadinthe

entiresyro-mesopotamianandeasternanatolianregion.butwhiletheintroductionofthesenewtechniquesintheseareascouldhavebeenrelatedtoshiftstowardmassproductionandcostreduction,theiruseinthesettlementsofthemoreperipheralregionsmayhavebeenrelatedtotheneedsofthelocalpopulations.inthecaseofgodedzor,thechaff-temperedpotteryanditscrudetechnologicalfeaturesmayhavebeenwelladaptedtotheproductionoflargeamountsofverybasicpotteryshapeshavingashortperiodofuse;theleastamountofeffort,time,andfuelwasthusspentforlow-cost(andlow-value)vesselsthatwerepossiblyabandonedattheendoftheseason.

thepresenceofthenorthiranianpaintedpottery,whichamongthedecoratedceramicsisthemostcommongroup,andtheevidenceofmobilitysuggestthattheoriginsofthecommunitieswhosettledatgodedzorshouldbesoughtintheregionoflakeurmia.thefewsherdsofubaid-likepotterycouldhavebeentransportedbythesegroupsfromtheirplacesoforigintoneighboringareasduringseasonalmigrations.

godedzorprobablyrepresentsoneofthenorthernmostsettlementsdiscoveredsofar,whichindicatesaclearnorthernubaid-relatedceramichorizon.itsceramicassemblagehelpsustodefinemorepreciselythenorthernbordersofanarea(iranianazerbaijan)culturallyrelatedtotheubaiddevelopmentstakingplaceinsouthernandnorthernmesopotamia.thesitewaspossiblylocatedontheedgesofaregionthatwaswithintheinteractionsphereoftheubaid-relatedcommunitiesofnorthwestiran.tothenorth,thatisinthelesserCaucasusandtheararatPlainregions,thelocalcommunitiesweredevelopingatatotallydifferentandautonomouspace(sionicomplex).theborderswereprobablyveryfluidandelastic,andnotlinkedtoformsofterritorialcontrol,beingshiftingculturalboundariesrelatedtothemainactivities(inthiscasespecializedpastoralism)carriedoutbythecommunitiesfromthelakeurmiaareainshort-ormedium-rangeinteractions.thus,theseboundariesshiftedaccordingtothedirec-tionschosenbythelocaltranshumantgroupsduringthecourseoftheirseasonalmovements.

aCKnowledgments

thearchaeologicalmissionCauCasusisdirectedbyC.ChataignerandisfinancedbytheFrenchministryofForeignaffairs.theexcavationofgodedzorisdirectedbyP.avetisyan(instituteofarcheologyofyerevan)andisconductedwiththecollaborationofireneKalantaryanandFirdusmuradyan(instituteofarcheologyofyerevan).thestudyofthepotteryisentrustedtogiulioPalumbi(università,lasapienza,rome,italy),thechippedstonetoborisgasparyan(gfoellerFoundation),theboneartifactstorosaliaCristidou(archeorient,lyon),thefaunatohans-Peteruerpmann(tübingen,germany)andCarinetomé(Cepam,valbonne),andtheplantremainstoromanhovsepyan(instituteofbotany,yerevan)andgeorgewillcox(Centrenationaldelarecherchescientifique,lyon).

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