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Project[56]SUSFISHBurkinaFasoSustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFaso(SUSFISH)ASYNTHETICOVERVIEWOFTHESUSFISHPROJECTSocietyMeetsEcology
JanSendzimir,GabiSlezak,RaymondOuedraogo,MouminiSavadogo,PhillipeCecchi,ColetteKabore,GustaveKabre,PiotrMagnuszewski,AdamaOueda,AimeNianogo,OttoMoog,FlorianPeloschek,LeonSavadogo,PatriceToe,HenriZerboandAndreasMelcherContributionsfrom:IdrissaKabore,TomKoblinger,KomandanMano,PaulMeulenbroek,TigaNeya,PhillipeSawadogo,SebastianStranzl,Vincent‐PaulSanon,DanielTraunerReportingperiod:November2011‐November2014FinalReportsubmitted:January,2015Financedby ImplementingOrganizations
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CurrentquestionsinsustainablewatermanagementandhighereducationEditorsandLayout:JanSendzimir,GabiSlezak,FlorianPeloschek,RaymondOuedraogo,MouminiSavadogo,andAndreasMelcherTobecitedas:SUSFISHConsortium(2015)SustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFaso‐asyntheticoverviewoftheSUSFISHproject.SupportedbytheAustrianPartnershipProgrammeinHigherEducation&ResearchforDevelopment,http://susfish.boku.ac.at/download.htm.Copyright2015bySUSFISHConsortiumSUSFISH‐SustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFasohttp://susfish.boku.ac.at/FundedbyAPPEAR(AustrianPartnershipProgrammeinHigherEducationandResearchforDevelopment)Project56.FinancedbytheAustrianDevelopmentCooperationCoordinators:Dr.AndreasMelcherUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeSciencesBOKU,Vienna,AustriaDr.RaymondOuedraogoMinistryofResearchandInnovation,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFasoAllpartsofthematerialareprotectedbythiscopyright.TheSUSFISHconsortiumisresponsibleforthecontent.
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Contents
Introduction1.KeyKnowledgeGainsunderSUSFISH
1.1.LessonsLearned1.1.1.BiophysicalSciences1.1.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences1.1.3.Gender1.1.4.Education1.1.5.Partnership
1.2.ImportantRemainingQuestions1.2.1.BiophysicalSciences1.2.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences
2.ImplicationsofSUSFISHResearchforScienceandPractice
2.1.ScenariosthatMeritFurtherScrutiny2.1.1.BiophysicalSciences
Scenario:Over‐fishingsoreducesaverageadultfishsizethatfisheryproductivityistrappedatminimumlevels.
2.1.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciencesScenario:Multi‐levelGovernancerelatedtonaturalresourcemanagementatthelocallevel
2.2.SystemsAnalysisofBehaviorPatternsCriticaltoSustainability2.2.1.BiophysicalSciences2.2.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences
3.Discussion4.Conclusions5.Appendices
5.1Scenarios
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IntroductionTheSUSFISHprojectwasdesignedtostrengthenin‐countrycapacitiesforscience,policyandpracticetoestablishthebasisforbetterwaterqualityandsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Thismeansbuildingscientificcapacitytomonitorandassessthedynamicsofreservoirecologicalservices(fish,water),theeducationalcapacitytotrainscientistsandtechniciansintheseconceptsandmethods,andthe institutionalcapacitiesinmanagementandpolicyformulationthatarelinkedwithresearchandeducationinthesphereofwaterandfisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Combiningtheseresearch,educationandpolicygoalsbooststhepotentialforsustainabledevelopmentinBurkinaFaso(seeFigure1).
Figure1–SUSFISHresearchproductsrelatedtofoodsecurity,sustainablefisheries,waterqualityboostthepotentialfordevelopmentandeducationinBurkinaFaso.
TheprojectwaslaunchedinNovember2011andisbeingundertakenbyaconsortiumofintotal 7 institutions of higher education and development in Burkina Faso and Austria,namely:
• Institute for Environment and Agricultural Research, Ministry of Research andInnovation,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso
• General Directorate for Fish Resources, Ministry of Animal and Fish ResourcesOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso
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• InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureanditsResources(IUCN),WestandCentralAfrica,ProgrammeBurkinaFaso
• PolytechnicUniversityofBobo‐Dioulasso,BurkinaFaso
• UniversityofOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso
• UniversityofVienna,Austria
• InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis(IIASA),LaxenburgAustria
• BOKUUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeScience,Vienna,Austria
The work was also done in close cooperation with Dr. Piotr Magnuszewski, Centre forSystemsSolutionsWroclaw,PolandandProf.PhillipeCecchifromtheprogram‘IRDG‐eau’and APPEAR project “MEAMP Elements for a Burkina Faso national pharmacopoeia:monographsredactionandqualitycontrolofendangeredantimalarialmedicinalplants”andfinallybutnotleasttheInstitutFrançaisdeBurkinaFasoandVienne.
Wewanttothankalldonors,partnersandpeoplewhosupportedandarestillsupportingourwork–especiallyMrs.GritschiKerlforsharingallherknowledgeandgreatexperiencewithus. We are grateful that the BOKU Center for International Relations (ZIB) funded theAustrian students stay in Burkina Fasowith a scholarship for short‐term scientificworkabroad(KUWI),awardeddirectlybytheUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeSciences.Furthermore,wewanttothanktheAustrianDevelopmentAgencyandAppearProgramme(Austrian Partnership Programme inHigher Education& Research for Development) forfinancing the SUSFISH Project (SustainableManagement ofWater and Fish Resources inBurkinaFaso),intheframeofwhichthisthesiswaswritten.
Dr.ZettelandespeciallyDr.JächfromtheNaturalHistoryMuseumViennawereveryhelpfuland patient with the identification of Hemiptera and Coleoptera, respectively. The samesupportwasgiven for fish identificationbyProf. JosSnoeksandhis teamfromtheAfricaMuseum in Tervuren, Belgium. Special thanks to the “Freunde des Haus des Meeres” inVienna.OurSUSFISHstudentPaulMeulenbroek´smasterthesison„fishhabitatuseinthevolta catchment“ was awarded with the Ferry‐Starmühlner‐Preis for the best thesis onfreshwater fish research in 2013. Prof. Ott from theUniversity of Vienna highlighted theenourmouseffortandcompetenceofbothAustrianandAfricanstudents.AtthefinalSUSFISHmeetingthisawardbenefitwillbesharedwiththeBurkinabecollegues.
In June 2013 a multi‐day workshop was organized in Vienna to show the potential forsustainable solutions that can emerge when a diversity of perspectives from social andnaturalsciences,fromacademia,governmentandinformedlaycommunityareintegratedinthepursuitofpolicyreform.
During thisworkshopmore than 100 visitors from 12 countries attendedmore than 30scientificpresentationsanddiscussions,alsopreparedforthepublic.OnehighlightwastheAustrian film premiere “Les grands Barrages en Afrique de l´Ouest” a documentary filmproducedby IUCNandECOWAS(EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates). Speakerscamefrom12differentscientificandpublicinstitutions,workingintheoryandpracticeon
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conceptsof life sciences,development research,biology,ecology, foodsecurity, sociology,anthropology,medicine,education,gender,systemanalysesandpoliticaltopics.Beyondthat,intensiveandfruitfuldiscussionsaboutpartnership,highereducation,participation,genderbutalsoclimatechange,humanimpactsecosystemserviceshelpedustounderstandeachotherbetter.
Overthreeyearstheprojectsuccessfullygeneratedadiversearrayofinformationusefulforsustainablefisheriesintheareasofaquaticecology,policiesandlegislation,socio‐economies,anthropology and gender in fisheries and water resources management. The project’sdemand‐drivenagendarequiresatitsendthatprojectpartnersgobacktothebeneficiaries(e.g stakeholders, scientists, fisherman, students) and share results, information andknowledgeco‐createdwithallofthem.
Thiswasthemainobjectiveofthe“SUSFISHFinalSymposium”thattookplaceattheCentreNationaldesArchivesinOuagadougou15‐16July2014.Thesecondaimofthesymposiumwastosupportfuturecooperationbetweenpartnerinstitutions.Itsspecificobjectiveswere(1) to oresent theproject results among researchers (research and education), (2) sharerelevantinformationwithdecisionmakersatotherstakeholdersand(3)todiscussfuturesteps.
About100personsattendedthesymposium:researchers,studentsandrepresentativesofinstitutions(government,NGOandeducation)thatareexpectedtouseandimplementtheSUSFISH results. Some twenty‐four presentationswere given (see the programme in theappendix).Themainfocuswasorientedtowardsthemostprominentresearchresults,thelessonslearnedandtheprospectiveareasforfurtherresearchandactivitiesinsustainablefisheriesandtheirsocioeconomiceffects.
Several recent developments and news remind us how complex and essential integratedapproachesare.Basedontheexperiencesofthepastyearsandnewfindings,wewanttoreflectonwhethersustainablesolutionsarepossibleonregional,nationalandinternationallevel.Today’sdevelopmentchallengesdemandintegratedapproachesthatallowleveragingonsynergiestoobtainmultiplebenefitsconcurrently.
InSUSFISHitisalsotheaimtointegrategenderissuesatallstagesofresearch.Thisapproachrequiresnewnetworks,newformsofcooperationtoaccordequalstatustobothgenders,andtarget women explicitly as important actors. During reporting period the project teamdecidedtofocusonthischallengeandtousegendersensitivityinordertocontributetoabetter understanding of social practice, complex interrelations of power relations andstrategiesofin‐andexclusioninthefisheriesandwatersectors.
MainfindingsfromSUSFISHactivitiesandresearch
Morethan75fishspeciesand61familiesofmacro‐invertebrateshavebeenidentifiedandtheirspatialdistributiondescribed.Auchenoglanisgen.andHydrocynusgencouldbeusedas sentinel genera. Clarias sp and Sarothorodon sp increasewith pressures, unlike otherspecies, e.g. Alestes sp and Schilbe sp., which are sensitive and decrease in number aspressuresrise.
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Thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthecommunitiesofbenthicinvertebratesinriversand in reservoirs.Water plant habitats exhibit a higher taxa richness and diversity thansedimenthabitats.
BiologicalassessmentofwaterbodiesinBurkinaFasoisfeasible.Twopossiblewaysareconsidered1)adaptinganexistingmethodor2)developinganownmethodology
Definition of reference sites in typologically similar rivers and areas; larger data setcomprising good, moderate and bad sites in different areas is necessary for futureinvestigations
Habitatandhumanpressuresinfluencebiodiversity Increase knowledge about Fish andBenthic Invertebrates – samplingmethod, taxonomy,
distribution,ecology,andconservationstatus.AdaptationofdeterminationkeysforBF
Development and implementation of a standardised monitoring system is necessary toprotectwatersandenvironment.
Adequate biological assessmentmethod enables policymakers andmanagers to enforceappropriatemanagementplanswillhelptoraisepublicawarenessfortheprotectionofwaterbodies
An official (IUCN red) list of fish species and invertebrates, a national database of metainformation on existing biophysical characteristics of fisheries, the diversity andconservation status of fish species and benthic invertebrates, the pressures on fishpopulations andmethods ofwater assessment based on fish andmacroinvertebrates areunderdevelopment
Thepopulationofdirectfisheriesstakeholdersisestimatedatabout32700persons(14%are women and 82 % men), 3 000 fishmongers (54% are woman). Between groups ofstakeholderssomedisparitiesintheaccesstofishresourcesarenoticeable:manvs.women,allochthon vs autochthons, youth vs. elderly. As a consequence preliminary results showunequalrepresentationindecision‐makingcommitteesandrestrictedaccesstoinformationaboutlaws,regulationsandrightsinthefisheriesamongthosegroupsofsociety.
TheSUSFISHProjectaimstointegrategenderissuesatallstagesofresearch.Thisapproachrequiresnewnetworks,newformsofcooperationtoaccordequalstatustobothgenders,andtargetwomenexplicitlyasimportantactors.Duringthereportingperiodtheprojectteamdecidedtofocusonthischallengeandtousegendersensitivityinordertocontributetoabetter understanding of social practice, complex interrelations of power relations andstrategiesofin‐andexclusioninthefisheriesandwatersectors.
Theresultsofsocialscienceresearchshowfirst,thatmacro‐levelpoliciesandlegislationarenotknownat regionaland local levels.Thenationalorganization in chargeof fisheries isunknownaswellbecausenotangibleactivityisundertakeninthefieldortotargetthedirectstakeholders. The field police fisheries officers (foresters) are not inclined to work onfisheriesintheareasofmonitoring,surveillanceandcontrol.Asaresult,prohibitedfishingmethods are increasingly used. Second, both “republican” e.g. European democratic, andtraditionalinstitutionsmakerelativelyimportantcontributionstothegovernanceofwaterandfishresources.Butthetwosystemshavetobeharmonized
WeobservedthatinBurkinaFaso,fishintakecontributestoimprovingfoodandnutritionsecurity.Incomefromfishsalesalsohelpsimprovethehouseholdfoodandnutritionsecurity.
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Asforcapacitybuildingandeducationstrengthening,about23students(2doctoral)and more than 20 masters) have been involved in SUSFISH. Several others areexpectedtobeassisted.
The following sections of this report describe how different facets of SUSFISH built thefoundationsofthesecapacitiesforfisheriesscience,policyandpractice.Aspreviouslynoted,thecoremissionoftheSUSFISHprojectwastodeliver informationthat includesandcutsacrossdisciplinaryboundaries.Assuch,alltheinformationreportedbelowwasdonebothfor thebiophysical sciences aswell as thenon‐biophysical sciences, e.g. social, economic,politicalandanthropologicalsciences.Section1.1reportsonthespecificfindingsoffactthatSUSFISH research established. Section 1.2 describes the key questions that remainoutstandingwith thecompletionof theSUSFISHproject. Section2examinessomeof theimportantimplicationsraisedbySUSFISHresearch.Section2.1reportsonwhatkeyexpertsandstakeholdersinBurkinaFasoconsiderareimportanttrendsandpossiblescenariosofconcerngrowingoutofcurrentconditions.Therelevantfactorsthatoughttobeinvestigatedinordertoexplorewhatrelationshipsmightproducesaidscenariosarelisted.AlongwiththequestionsraisedinSection1.2,thesearemeanttoinformeffortstodesignfutureresearchagendasforBurkinaFasofisheries.Section2.2givestwoexamplesofconceptualmappingexercisestoillustratehowsuchsystemsanalysiscanelucidatewhataresomeofthespecifickindsofrelationships,e.g.webs,chains,feedbackloops,thatcouldproducethescenariosinquestion.
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Section1.KeyKnowledgeGainsunderSUSFISH1.1LessonsLearnedEventhoughreservoirfisheriesandthesciencebehindthemarerelativelyyoung,theknowledgebaseassociatedwiththeactivitiesandthesocial‐ecologicalsystemsofinlandfisheriesisalreadyprodigiousandgrowing.ThefollowingsectionnarrowsthefocuswithinthisknowledgebasetothefactsthatSUSFISHresearchgeneratedinthebiophysicalandnon‐biophysicalsciences.Theemphasisonlessonslearnedhighlightsthefactthatatthisearlystagemanykindsofinformation,e.g.data,concepts,ideas,cancontributetoestablishingandmaintainingsoundscience,policyandpracticeforinlandfisheriesinBF.1.1.1.BiophysicalSciencesThissectionreportsonfindingsoffactgeneratedbyfieldmeasurementsandknowledgeelicitation.TheseresearchactivitieswereperformedbySUSFISHpartners,e.g.students,supervisingprofessors,governmentagents,toaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.biology,chemistry,andecology.Table1.1–CriticalLessonsLearnedbyBiophysicalScienceResearchunderSUSFISHNo. LessonLearnedfromBiophysicalScienceResearchinBurkinaFaso
1.1 Fishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitat
management
1.2 Fishpresenceanddiversityareloweredbyanthropogenicpressures
1.3 Benthicinvertebratepresenceanddiversityareaffectedbyanthropogenicpressures
1.4 Fishtaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments
1.5 Despiteanthropogenicpressuresfishpresenceanddiversityremainshigherifhydrologicalconnectivityoftheregionalsurfacewaternetworkismaintained,allowingfishmigrationtoreplenishlocalpopulationdeclines.
1.6 BenthicMacro‐Invertebratetaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments.
1.7 BenthicMacro‐Invertebratetaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofwaterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchments.
1.8 Usingfishandinvertebratetaxatodevelopabio‐monitoringprograminBurkinaFasoisbothfeasibleandnecessary.
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1.9 WaterqualityinBFcanbemonitoredusingabiotic(Conductivity,WaterQuality)andLandUse‐LandCover(HabitatType)parameters.
1.10 Fishproductivity,abundanceanddiversityrelatedtowatertemperature.
1.11 ThemostimportantanthropogenicthreatstoaquaticbiodiversityinBurkinaFasoare:Habitatlossordegradation>pollutionofwaterbodies>>drought.
1.12 Fishbiodiversitystatus:asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaisthreatened
Lesson1.1:Fishingactivitywaspresentinallstudysites,butanthropogenicpressureonfisheriesvariesaccordingtohowmuchfisheriesmanagementoccurs.Ourresultsconfirmthatfishsizeandfishcommunitydiversityareassociatedwiththedegreeandqualityofmanagement,bothoffisheriesdirectlyandofthehabitatsurroundingthefishery.Forexample,theNazingasitehasrelativelyunimpactedhabitat(landmanagement)andhasaclosedfishingseasonthatiswell‐regulated(fisheriesmanagement),andithassignificantlylargerfishandahighershareinadultfishthananyothersamplingsite.Furthermore,bothfishandBMIdiversityarehigherinprotectedareasthanothers,e.g.Nazinga,MareauxHippo.Justasimportantasthelegalcontentofpolicy,justasimportanttobiodiversityconservationisitsexecutionattheappropriatelevel(subsidiarity)bywell‐organizedandledlocalactors.Forexample,inMoussodougouthefisheriesaredirectlycontrolledbyalocalassociationthateffectivelyenforcesrules.SituationswitheffectivemanagementareassociatedwithanincreasedbiomassesandabundancewithlargefishspecimensLesson1.2.Increasingintensityofanthropogenicpressureleadstodeclinesin:1.Diversity;2.Some(potentialindicator)speciesandalsofamilies;3.Trophiclevel(thetrophicleveldroppedfrom3to2.5athighlyimpactedsites.),and4.Densityandbiomassofintolerantspecies.ThenumberoffishgenerafounddeclineswithnumberofpressuresAnthropogenicpressuresonfisheriesmostlyoccurinmultipleform(clusters)andcorrelateamongsteachothertocreate“cumulativeeffects.”Agriculturalpressureswerepresentin87%ofoursites.70%ofallsitesexhibitedbadwaterquality(expertopinion).50%hadconnectivitypressures(GIS),streammorphologyismostlystillok(SS)IntheNakambecatchmentonly13%ofthearearemainedasnaturalvegetation,76%iscultivatedlandand11%isbaresoil,waterholdingcapacityhasdecreased33%in30years.Lesson1.3.Benthicinvertebratesampledatareflectwaterqualityandsurroundinglanduse.Sometaxarespondpositivelytoanthropogenicpressures.Forexample,thehighestdensitiesandabundanceofsnailswerefoundintheinvestigationsiteswithintenseagricultureandlivestock’s.SomeBItaxaclearlyrespondednegativelytoanthropogenicpressures.Thetotalnumberoftaxaandthenumberof“sensitive”taxa,e.g.Ephemeroptera(Mayflies)andTrichoptera(CaddisFlies),declinedastheamountofpressureincreases.Thehierarchyofresponsestoanthropogenicpressuresasindicatedbybenthicinvertebratedataisasfollows:OuagadougouRes.2<KoubriAncien=Bagre‐SW<Ziga<Nazinga‐Naguio.
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Lesson1.4.Fishtaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsoftheimpactsofanthropogenicpressureseitherinthepositiveornegativesense.Forexample,Auchenoglanisgen.andHydrocynusgen.couldbeusedassentinelgenerabecauseitisnotfoundinareasofhighanthropogenicimpact.Clariassp.andSarothorodonsp.increasewithpressures,unlikeotherspecies,e.g.Alestessp.andSchilbesp.,whicharesensitiveanddecreaseinnumberaspressuresrise.Hemichromisand,especially,Tilapia,correlatepositivelywithhydro‐morphologicalpressure,buttheyrespondnegativelytochemicalimpacts.Lesson1.5.Studysitesthatareunderanthropogenicpressurebuthaveintactconnectivity,e.g.fishcanmigratetootherpartsofthewaternetwork,haveahigherdiversitythanfragmentedones.Thismayberelatedtoourobservationthatabout50%ofallcaughtspeciesarepotamodromous,andthereforenormallymigrateforspawning.Connectivityisseverelyimpactedbyhydrographmodificationandreservoirdams.Morethanninetypercent(90%)oftheannualdischargeintheNakambebasinisheldbackbydams,causingmassivehydrographicalmodification.Approximatelyeighty‐ninepercent(89%)ofallsitesinthisstudywereregardedasunderinfluenceofhydrographicalchangesorresidualflow.Lesson1.6.VariousparametersofBenthicInvertebrate(BI)communities,e.g.BiodiversitycanbeusedasBio‐IndicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments.BIdatacanthereforebeusefultopre‐classifyhumanimpacts.OurdataindicatesthatlanduseaffectswaterqualityandresultsinachangedBItaxacomposition.Therefore,asimpleapproachtodistinguishdifferentlandusescanbeusedtoenvisagewaterquality.Especiallytheintensityofagriculturallanduseisastrongpredictorofthebiota’sreaction.Lesson1.7.VariousparametersofBenthicInvertebrate(BI)communities,e.g.BiodiversitycanbeusedasBio‐Indicatorsofwaterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchments.Ourresearchconfirmedthatwaterbodiesofdifferentlydegradedmorphologyarecolonizedbydifferentbenthicassemblagesandthatstructureslikedifferentwaterplants(macrophytes)showatwotothreetimeshighertaxarichnessthansamplescollectedinsedimenthabitats.BIcommunitiesalsoreflecttheirsurrounding“waterbodytype”.Thishasbeenshownatthe“local”scales.Forexample,benthicinvertebrateassemblagesofrunningwaterscanbeclearlyseparatedfromthecommunitiesinponds.Flowconditions(e.g.stagnant,lentic,lotic)havebeenverifiedastheprominentecologicalpredictoroftheBIspeciescomposition.Thisalsohasbeenshownatthebroaderscalesof“eco‐regions,”e.g.analysesof17reservoirsshowedthatdifferenteco‐regions/bioregionshavedistinctlydifferentBIcommunities.Weconcludethatforwatermanagementpurposesthismeansthattheaccordingconceptsandmeasuresmustbeseparatelydevelopedforstandingandrunningwaterbodiesindifferenteco‐regions.Thereareindicationsthatamongrunningwatersatypologicaldistinctionmustbemadebyseparatingintermittentandperennialstreams(streamsections).ThesefindingsclearlyshowthatinBFareferenceconditionsbasedassessmentmethodologytoevaluatetheecologicalqualityofwaterbodiescanbedeveloped.ThusBFwouldhaveafutureassessmentmethodologythatfulfillsthehighestlevelofthestateofarts.Lesson1.8.Certainfishandinvertebratespeciescanbeusedasbio‐indicatorstoassesstheecologicalstatus(waterquality)ofaquatichabitatsinBurkinaFaso(seeLessons1.1to1.7).
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ThereisaclearneedtodevelopanewmonitoringsystembasedsolelyonBFdata.OurresearchonhistoricdatashowsthatscreeningandsamplingmethodscurrentlyinuseelsewhereinAfricaandtheworlddonotgeneratereliablestatisticswhenappliedinBFwaterbodies.TechnicaldevelopmentandapplicationofabiologicalassessmentofwaterbodiesinBurkinaFasoisfeasibleasathreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecisioncanbeestablished:level1:arapidfieldmethodology;level2:aBioticScore;andlevel3:aMultimetricApproach.ABioticScoreprovidesavalidandsoundbut–comparedtotheMultimetricapproach‐alesssophisticatedbiomonitoringtoolforassessingtheecologicalqualityofawaterbody.AlthoughbasedononlyafewsamplingsitestheMastersthesisofKoblinger&Trauner(2014)gaveclearevidencethataBioticScorecanbedevelopedinBF.Lesson1.9.Humaninfluencesandurbanizationcause,amongotherparameters,increasedconductivitylevelsandhighoxygendemand.Ourresearchinrunningwatersshowsacorrelationbetweenconductivityandecologicalwaterquality:thelowertheSASS‐ASPTscore,thehighertheconductivityvalue.Watercolumnconductivityvariesbetweendifferentmeso‐habitatsamplingpoints,butstillisanappropriateparameterforwaterqualitybecausea)itcorrelatessufficientlywellwithanthropogenicimpacts,andb)itiseasyandcost‐efficienttomeasure.Critical“tippingpoints”orthresholdsforbiodiversitywereshownwhendiversityrapidlydecreasedwhenconductivitysurpassed120uScm‐1orwhenoxygensaturationsurpassed120%.AllareasexceptforNazinga(protectedarea)haveO2saturationsabovethisvalue.ThelowerpressuresiteshaveanO2Median>80%<100%andthemoreimpactedsiteshaveamedianO2saturationvalue>50%<75%.Lesson1.10.Withincreasingambienttemperatureofthewatercolumn,productivityofawaterbodyincreasesaswell,resultinginhigherabundancesandmorediversespeciesrichness(Figure10,Ref.:8).Abundanceandrichnessreachamaximumbetween29‐31°Candthesuddendropofabundanceandspeciesrichnessindicatesthemaximumtoleranceofsomeofthelocalfishspecies.Reservoirscanreinforcethistrendoftheheatingupofthewaterbodies.Lesson1.11.Broadly,inBurkinaFasothepresence,diversity,trophiclevel,densityandbiomassofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebrategeneraandspeciesrespondnegativelytoarangeofanthropogenicpressures.Theseimpactsincludeoverfishing,hydrologicalalteration,agriculture,waterquality,migrationbarriers,morphologicalalterationandlossofhabitat(Stranzl2014).
Table1.2–AnthropogenicthreatstoAquaticSpeciesinWestAfricanCatchments(Smithetal.IUCNRedListofWestAfricanSpecies) PercentofAquaticSpeciesThreatened
AnthropogenicThreat EndangeredSpecies AllSpeciesHabitatLossorDegradation 88 50
Agriculture 48 32Mining 28 08WoodHarvest 54 23HumanSettlement 20 06Dam 11 04
InvasiveAlienSpecies 04 08
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Harvesting 05 07PollutionofWaterBodies 55 20
Agriculture 24 12Domestic 12 03Commercial/Industrial 31 08OilSlicks 07 02Sediment 25 08
Drought 07 17HumanDisturbance 04 02Unknown 01 27
Lesson1.12.Atthenationallevel,apreliminaryredlistingofthefishspeciesshowsthat24.6%ofthe152evaluatedspeciesareCriticallyEndangered,8.4%Endangeredand22.5areVulnerable.Comparingthebiodiversityof4mainsamplingsites(Nazinga,Bagre,KoubriandKougri)
Numberofexclusivefishspeciesforeachofthemainsamplingsites,showsthelocaldiversity
1.1.2.SocialSciencesThissectionreportsonfindingsoffactgeneratedbyfieldmeasurementsandknowledgeelicitation.TheseresearchactivitieswereperformedbySUSFISHpartners,e.g.students,supervisingprofessors,governmentagents,toaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothenon‐biophysicalsciences,e.g.sociology,economics,policyandanthropology.Table2–CriticalLessonsLearnedbySocialScienceResearchunderSUSFISHNo. LessonLearnedfromSocial,EconomicandPoliticalScienceResearchinBurkina
Faso
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2.1 Becauseofmultiplekindsoflegalandadministrativestatusesforfisheriesaccordingtoreservoirtype(largeorsmallscale),therearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.
2.2 Alinkbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesismissing(lawisnotadoptedtopractice).Thereforelittleeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.
2.3 EffectivemanagementoffisheriesisblockedbyfailuretoharmonizeRepublicanandTraditionalinstitutions.
2.4 Lackofhistoricaldataandstatisticshamperseffortstomeasureprogressandmanagepolicyandfisheriespracticesaccordingly.
2.5 Fisheriesresourcesarenotequallyaccessibletoallactors.
2.6 Creationandenforcementoffisheriespolicyishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationalLevel(AdministrativeFlux).
2.7 Illegalequipmentandpracticesareincreasinglyusedinfisheries.
2.8 Thelong‐termsustainabilityoffisheriesishamperedbyfailuretomaintainfisheriespost‐harvestinfrastructure.
2.9 Progressinimprovingfishingmethodsisblockedbylackofcapacitytolearnortoorganize.
2.10 Currentinstitutionalmechanismsareinsufficienttoimplementandimprovefisheriespolicies.
2.11 FishplayanincreasingroleintheeconomyanddietofBurkinaFaso,butlocal
productionstagnates,andfishconsumptionisonly30%ofWHO
recommendations.
2.12 Theroleoffishinprotectinghealthincludesanincreasingcontributiontoprotein
andenergyintake(dependingonfishqualityandhygienicconditionsintermsoffishprocessing(conservation).
2.13 Traditionalinstitutionsstillplayarole,butrepublicanlawispreeminentinfisheriespolicyandmanagement.
2.14 Traditionalinstitutionsplayvitalroleofreaffirmingidentityofcommunitiesreliantonaquaticecosystemsandtherebybroadlyinfluencewaterandfishmanagement.
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2.15 Theimportanceofthedivisionoflabour,financing,responsibilitiesbetweenmaleandfemaleactorsinfisheriesisnotfullyconsideredbythosewhomakeand/orenforcepolicyinBurkinaFaso.
2.16 Theintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinfisheriespolicyandmanagementneedsaninter‐ministerialcrosssectorcooperation.
2.17. Discriminatingpracticestowardswomenareanchoredinstructuraldisparities.
2.18. Genderdisparitiesinsocio‐ecologicalresearchresultsinfluence(manipulate)strategicplanningatpolicymakinglevelforsustainablefisheriesmanagementinBurkinaFaso.
Lesson2.1.Atthelowergovernancelevelsbelowthenationallevel,e.g.regionalandlocal,thestructuraldifferencesoffisheriesmanagementinBFtakeeffect.Forinstance
institutions,suchasmacro‐levelpoliciesandlegislationorthenationalorganizationin
chargeoffisheries,arenotknownbecausenotangibleactivityisvisiblyundertakeninthe
fieldortheactivitiesdonottargetthedirectstakeholders.Accordingtoourfindingsincase
ofthefourlargestreservoirs(Ziga,Bagre,Kompienga,Sourou)thereisgoodcommunicationbetweenthenationalandlowerlevelsandmanagementatthatlevelisgood.But
communicationisnotsogoodformanagementorgansdevotedtosmallerreservoirs,except
forfourfishingconcessionsgiventotheassociationsofthelocalfishermen(Bapla,Moussodougou,Tandjari,Lera)wherethecommunicationandmanagementisgood.Bylawtherearetwokindsofstatusoffisheriesbasedonmanagementtype:concessionandPHIE(PerimetreHalieutiqued’IntérêtEconomique),i.e.afisherythatimpactsthenationaleconomy.Butactually,therearethreecategoriesoffisheriesmanagement:verylarge
reservoirsthatneverdryoutandfishingcontinuesformuchoftheyear(PHIE),and
concessions,and“others”thathavenolegalstatus.Note:subsistencefisheriesexistinallthreecategoriesmentionedabove.Besidesthis,bylawtherearefourcategoriesoffisheries
definedaccordingtotheuseofthecatch:commercial,subsistence,sport,andscientific.
AccordingtoSUSFISHfindingsthiscategorizationdoesnotreflectthestatusquo.Besides
subsistencefisheriesallothercategoriesarenotrepresentedsignificantly.
Intowhatcategoryafisheryfallsisaquestionofprioritiesofnationalpolicies‐thePHIEare
“nationally‐important”reservoirs,whereasthelatteraremore“subsistence‐level”fishing
forlocalmarkets.Fortheformer,managementisorganizedataprofessionallevel:mostof
thefishermeninvolvedareprofessionalsandareawareofthelegislationorrules.However,
thereisalinkbetweeneducationandfisheriesmanagement.Asilliteracyiscommonamong
fishermenandfishprocessors,atalower,morelocal,levelawarenessofregulationsaswell
asaccesstoinformationonimprovingfishingmethodscanbeblocked.Atthelocallevels
(subsistencefisheries)whenofficialsignoreratherthanengage(nomonitoringor
enforcement)localproblems,thelackofengagementgiveslocalfishermennoopportunity
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tolearnaboutfisheriespoliciesthroughrespondingtothem.Thustheyremainlargely
uninformedaboutlegislationandadministrativepolicy.Theydoknowsomeoftherules,
buttheyrarelyifeverobservethem.Lowerlevelagentsperceivenofunctionallinks(e.g.
communication)thattieGDFAstaffwithanyofthedecentralizedlowerlevelgovernment
layers.Therefore,mostlocalfishermenareunawareoftheGDFAorwhatitsfunctionsare.
Nationallegislationandpoliciesarenotknownbyanyofthedecentralizedlowerlevel
governmentlayers.Inclosingwemustcautionthatthisdatawasgatheredduringa
transitionalperiod(shiftingresponsibilitiesbetweenpeopleindifferentorganizations)
suchthatanyoneinterviewedwouldnotclaimresponsibility.
Lesson2.2.Theoretically,therearemanagementplans,thatincludemonitoringandimplementation,forthe4majorreservoirsandforthe4concessions,butfortheother1000
reservoirstherearemostlynoplans,nomonitoringorenforcement.Aspreviouslystated,in
someofthesesmallerfisheriesthatmonitoringislefttobyforestryagents,NGOsor
fishermen’sassociations.Thefieldpolicefisheriesofficers(foresters)arenotinclinedto
workonfisheriesintheareasofmonitoring,surveillanceandcontrol.Asaresult,
prohibitedfishingmethodsareincreasinglyused.
StafffromtheGeneralDirectorateforFisheriesandAquaculture(GDFA)
“Fisheriesmanagers”arerarelyifeverseeninthefieldmonitoringfishing.
Thisrelativeabsencecanbeexplainedbythetwoseparatestructuresoffisheries
managementinBurkinaFaso:hierarchicalandfunctional.(asexplainedinLesson2.1).
AsamatterofresourcesStaffofthedecentralizedlowerlevelgovernmentlayersdonot
investanytime,money,orequipmentinfisheriesmanagement.Professionalstaffof
nationalagencies,inthiscaseforesters,arenotinclinedtoexpandtheirdutiesfromforest
managementtosurveillanceandenforcementoffisheries.Thisreflectstheuncertainty
emergingfromresponsibilityoverlapaswellasfrominstitutionalnomadism.Thelawwas
notadjustedtotheactualsituation.Untilnowtheforestersshouldcontrolthefisheries,but
forestersareinthemeantimeintheMinistryofEnvironmentandthemanagementof
fisheriesisintheMinistryofAnimalResources.Inter‐agencyconflicts(agriculturalstaffvs.
foresters)makeitdifficulttodefinetheboundariesofagencyresponsibility,sowithouta
clearmandatefieldofficersarenotinclinedtomonitorfisheries.
Lesson2.3.Both“republican”,e.g.Europeandemocratic,andtraditionalinstitutionsmakerelativelyimportantcontributionstothegovernanceofwaterandfishresources.Butthe
twosystemshavetobeharmonized.Despitesuchchanges,e.g.Theon‐goingdevelopment
andrefinementofRepublicaninstitutionscanbeonereasonwhyaresurgenceof
traditionalpractices(sacrificebyfishermen,traditionalfishing)isrecentlynotedbythe
variousactors.Itisthecombinationofvariouselementsofgovernanceaccordingto
Balandiera“syncretism”oftraditionalandmodernsystems;”.Traditionalstress[conflict]
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managementseemstochangeorslipawayleavingsomeroomformodernmanagement.
Experiencesofparticipatorymanagementofnaturalresourcesshowanappropriatewayto
resolveconflictsinthetensionbetweenthelegitimacyoftraditionalandmodern
perspectives.However,thepatentfailureofgovernanceinstitutionstofunctionatalllevels
andsucceedinmanagingsustainablefisheriesunderminestrust,andthistrendis
exacerbatedbyemergentproblemslike“elitecapture”ofparticipatoryprocessesorthe
afore‐mentionedfailuretoharmonizetraditionalandrepublicaninstitutions.
Lesson2.4.Lackofdata(eitherabsenceorpoordataquality)deprivesanyagency,governmentorNGO,ofbaselineinformationaboutanyaquaticecosystem’shistory.Measuringprogressordeclineinfisheriesrequiressuchbaselineinformation.Thisappliesnotonlytodataonfisheryproduction(harvestandpost‐harvest)butalsotothenumberoffishingpersons,etc.Lesson2.5.Betweengroupsofstakeholderssomedisparitiesintheaccesstofishresourcesarenoticeableingeneral:manvs.women;allochthon(e.g.localindigenous)vsautochthons(foreignersfromothernationsorotherregions);youthvs.elderly;educated[French,modern]vs.noteducated;insidevs.outsidenetworksorlobbies;differentethnicgroups.Butourin‐depthstudiesshowedthatinthecaseofgender,wenotethat14%offishingpersonsarewomen,soexclusionisnottotal.Asaconsequencepreliminaryresultsshowinequitablerepresentationindecision‐makingcommitteesandrestrictedaccesstoinformationaboutlaws,regulationsandrights.Thisproblemisfurtherexacerbatedbyinstancesof“elitecapture,”where‐inmembersofpowerelitestakeoverdecision‐makingprocessestotheirfinancialandpoliticalbenefit.Lesson2.6.Responsibilityfordevelopingandadministeringwaterandfisherypolicyshiftedoftenbetweenministriesand,hence,betweendepartmentsandindividuals.Somefishermenclaimedsuchshiftspreventedsurveillancethatwouldhavehinderedthemfromusingsmallernetmeshsizes,atrenddrivingdownfishsize.Theimplicationsofsuchunpredictableshiftsinresponsibilityaregeneralfeelingsoffrustration,helplessnessandalackoftrustingovernance,whicharesustainedwhensuchnomadismperpetuatesastateofignorancebythoseofficiallyresponsibleformanagement.Iftheypayanyattention,suchofficialsmustbeeducated,soeachproblemisstartedandre‐startedsooftenthatitappearstrivialorisunsolvableandiseasilyignored.Thisalsoworksinreverse.Whenofficialschoosetoignoreratherthanengagelocalproblems,thelackofengagementgiveslocalfishermennoopportunitytolearnaboutfisheriespoliciesthroughrespondingtothem.Thustheyremainignorantoflegislationandadministrativepolicy.Lesson2.7.Historicalprecedentandthelackofeffectivemonitoringandenforcementaretwoimportantfactorsfortheincreaseofillegalfishingmethods.Forinstancetheuseofillegalfishinggear[togiveonlyoneexample:meshsize]iscommonandhasbeenthecaseforsolongthatithasbecomes“normal”or“business‐as‐usual”thatgivesunofficialsanctiontoillegalfishing.Theimplicationsofsuchopenanduncheckedillegalityarethattheuseofillegalequipmentisnolongeraconsciouschoice.Oneisnolongerawarethatonehas“crossedtheline”intoillegalitybecause“everyonedoesit.”
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Lesson2.8.Infrastructure(fishponds,refrigerators,fish‐weighingscales,fishshops)areinstalledbuteithernotmaintainedandallowedtodecayorconvertedforprivateuse.Suchpatentfailuresunderminetrustinthegovernmentinstitutionsthatestablishandexecuteprograms,projectsandpoliciestodevelopinfrastructure.Lesson2.9.Ofthemanyfactorsthathamperlearningnewfishingmethods,onecouldbeilliteracy,whichiscommonamongfishermenandfishprocessors.Thisblocksawarenessofregulationsaswellasaccesstoinformationonimprovingfishingmethods.Butitisalsoaquestionofadequatetrainingmodulesforthetargetgroups.Forinstance,sometrainingcourseshavebeendeveloped,buttheyarenotspecializedforfishing.Rathertheyareframedforagricultureingeneralwithafewsessionsforfishingandaquaculture.Furthermore,thistrainingisnotgenerallyavailableacrossallBF,andnotcomprehensiveordetailedenoughtoreallymakeadifference.Learningnewmethodsisfurtherhamperedbyinsufficientcredibleexpertadvice.In13regionsthereisnoexpertinfisheriesandaquacultureavailabletoadviselocalfishermenseekingtolearnnewpractices.Thismandatesthatfisheriesconsultanciesshouldbeestablishedatthelocal,regionalandnationallevels.Thespreadofinformationaboutnewmethodsisalsohamperedbylackoforganization.Mostofthefishermenandfishprocessorsarenotorganizedinprofessionalgroupsinwhichaccessislimitedtothoseintheprofession.Whentheyare,thefunctioningofsuchgroupsisquestionable(elitecapture).Indeedconflictsofleadershipareoftennoticeableevenwhentheassociationfunctionsmoreorlesswell.Thislackoflocalorganizingcapacityhinderseffortsforbottom‐upleadershipinfisheriesmanagementtofillthegapleftbyfailurefromthetop,thenationallevel.Veryfewifanylocalsustainabilityinitiativesarestarted,oftenblockedbytheperceptionthattheylackresources,usuallymoney.Lesson2.10.Failureinfourareashinderseffortstoadministerandimprovefisheriespolicies.1.Failuretointegratelocalknowledge:Policyformulationandimplementationreflectslocalrealitiesonlypartially.Thisisbecauseinputbylocalpeopletopolicycreationoradministrationisblockedbylackofcapacitytoconstructivelyparticipate.Thereasonsforthislackofcapacityaremultiple:lackoffundingtosupportparticipation,lackofexperienceortraininginparticipation(people),lackofeffectiveprocessesofparticipativedemocracy(governance).SuchgovernancebreakdownsasEliteCaptureareespeciallydamaginginthisregard.2.Thislackofinclusivenessisreinforcedbychronicfailuretoevaluatepoliciesperiodicallyandimprovethem.Suchperiodicpolicyreviewrequiresrigorousmeasurementofpolicyimpactsandcouldidentifywherelackoflocalinvolvementharmspolicycreationoradministration.3.Evenintheabsenceoflocalparticipation,nationallevelpolicymakershavefailedtomakenationalvisionoffisheriesoperative.Anational“vision”hasbeenrecorded,butitremainstheoryonpaper,notapractical,workingvisionthatinformspolicyandimplementation.Theimplicationsofsuchfailuresofleadershipisthatlackofavisionmeansthatlocalaswellasregionalandnationalactorshavenoparadigmoffisheries
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developmenttorallyaroundanduseasabaselineagainstwhichtomeasurepolicyperformance.4.Failuretocohereandharmonizepoliciesofdifferentministrieshinderseffortstoimprovepolicy.Fisheriessustainabilitydependsonintegrationofpoliciesgoverningarangeofdiverseactivities,e.g.water,agriculture,forests,mining,tourism.Institutionalnomadismcontributestothisfailuretocreatecompatiblepoliciesorintegratethem.Thisfailuretoharmonizepoliciesacrossdifferentgovernancelevelsislinkedtoorineffectiveeffortstodecentralizepowertoregionswhilemaintainingafunctioninggovernancestructurethatworksacrossalllevels.Lesson2.11.Fisheconomy:FishconsumptionroseinBFwhenfinancialandeconomiccrises,e.g.devaluationin1994,drovelivestockexportationupasmuchas94%,increasingthemeatprice.Thisshiftwasalsodrivenbyimprovementsinlivelihoods,especiallyincreasesinincomeinurbanareas.FishLandings:Whilereliabledataislacking,expertopinioncommonlyassertsthatcapturesfisheriesproductionisdeclining,especiallyinhighpressureareas.Thiscouldberelatedtothecombinationofmanyfactorsincludingclimatechange,humanfactorsandlowernaturalproductivity.Thisdevelopmentisopposedbyanincreasingdemandforfishaccordingtointernationalnutritionalhealthrecommendations.Averagefishconsumptionwaswith3.5kg/capita/yearin2009inBurkinaFasoverylow,comparedto15kginCoted'Ivoire,7kginMaliand12kginSenegal.ThislevelofconsumptionisfarfromtheWHOrecommendations(12kg/capita/year)andtheglobalaveragewas18.6kg/capita/yearin2010.Furthermoreonly20%ofthedomesticsupplyin2011camefromdomesticproduction,accordingtotheDirectionGénéraledelaPêcheetdel’Aquaculture.FollowingtheNationalStrategyforfishandaquaculturedevelopment(officialpolicyasof2011),withthisincreasingdemandonfishandthehighpercentageoffishimportstoBurkinaFasoinmindthecurrentchallengeforthesectoroffisheriesresourcesisincreasing40%peryeardomesticproductionthroughaquaculture.Lesson2.12.Fishandhealth:fishisanincreasinglyimportantpartofthediet.Thisisespeciallysoinruralareaswheremeatislessavailableandexpensive.Fishismoreaffordable,ishealthy(lowfat)andcanbeappliedindifferentways,e.g.tonameoneexample:complementbreast‐feeding.FishContributionstoHouseholdDiet
‐PercentageofHouseholdswithFishConsumption:1d/week(38%),1to2d/week(28%),daily(34%).‐Fishmoreaffordable(lessexpensiveandavailableinsmallerportions)formost(88%)ofhouseholddomesticheads(women)‐Averagedailyexpenseforfishpurchase(150FrancsCFA)‐Fishcontributiontototalenergyindiet(kcal):31.5to45%‐Fishcontributiontototalproteinindiet:25to78.3%‐Fishcontributiontototalproteintocomplementbreast‐feedingindietofinfants:82.2%
thehighestpercentageoffishcontributiontohouseholddietwasstatedinfamiliesoffishermenorfishprocessingwomen
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However,thecontributionoffishtohealthimprovementdependsonfishquality.Findingsonmicrobiologicalandparasitologicalqualityofcommercialfishshowdifferencesinbacterialdensitylinkedtoprocessingmethods,andhygienicconditionsofsellingcontexts.Highprevalenceofparasiteswasfoundonlyonfreshandsmokedfish,thelatterisprobablythemostcommonlyavailableformoffishprotein.Thehealthriskfromfishingcanbereducediffunctionallinkscanbemadebetweenfisherymanagementandthelocalhealthsystemforpreventionofinjuryandillness,e.g.preventionofwater‐relatedriskslikediarrheaandmalaria.Microbialcontaminationoffishenroutetomarketleadstodecreasesinthequalityoffishinthedietandraisesthequestionofqualitycontrolforfoodsecurityatdifferentpointsonthevaluechain.Lesson2.13.Thepreeminenceofrepublicanlawinfisheriespolicyandmanagement:Modernlawsthatgovernfisherymanagementinclude: RAF(Nationallaw:ReformeAgraireetFonciere):governsthemanagementofnaturalresourcesandallocatesfishingonpublicwatersinthestate;andForestCode:regulatesfisheriesconservation,managementanddevelopmentoffisheriesandaquaculture.Fishermengroupsorassociationsatthelocallevelrelaytheserules.ExamplesoffishingrulesimposedbyRepublicanlawasobservedby5groupsorassociationsoffishermenoranglersinBurkinaFaso(Wramba,DougouYiriwaton,Yiguèbougo,AmicaledespêcheursdeBanfora)
- Prohibitiononfishingfry(growthstagesmallerthanjuveniles,e.g.larvae)- Prohibitiononfishinginspawningareas- Banhawknet- Weighcatches- Nocultivationattheedgeofthedam- Reducingthenumberofnetsintimesofrecession- ProhibitedtofishFriday- Prohibitiononmeshlessthan35mmEconomicalimplications:
commodificationoffishThesocialimplicationsofchangesimposedbyRepublicangovernanceinclude:
- Disarticulationoftraditionalgovernance- Anorganizationofsectors(Groups,Associations)- Newrolesofwomeninthetransformation- Peasantsweretransformingasfishermen- Resistanceofpopulationstonewregulations- Useofnetsofmesh<35mm- Practiceoffishingwithoutalicense
Lesson2.14.Traditionalinstitutionsreinforcethesenseofaquaticecosystemsas“sacredspace”attheheartofthelifeofsurroundingcommunities.“Waterbodiesoccupyanimportantplaceinthehistoryofthestudyarea.Theyareloadedwithsymbolismandcontainveryoftenplacesofworship.“.Water‐relatedtraditionalceremonies,suchassacrificesmeditatedbytheTengsobaand/ortheKotigi,havethefollowingaims:happinessofallpeople;goodrainfall;peaceinthevillage;theproductivityofthedam;thesafetyofusers.Examplesofinterventionsmediatedbytraditionalinstitutions(ceremonies)bylocal
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authoritiesinthreevillages(Mossodougou,Tengrela,Tiefora):sacrificesincasesofdrowning,(3);participationinfishermens’sacrifices(2);prohibitionoffishingonFriday(1);presidencyoftheCGP(1);authorizationtoincreasethepriceoffish(1);appointmentasChairmanofthefishermen(1);expulsionofforeigners(1).Lesson2.15.Dataonthedivisionoflabour,financing,responsibilitiesbetweenmaleandfemaleactorsinthefisheriessectorbroughtdeeperinsighttothehighcontributionofwomentothesustainabilityoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Buttheirimportantrolesarenotfullyconsideredbypolicymakers,institutions,authorities,associations,andsociety.‐toalargedegreewomenaremanagingtheworkoflocalfishermenatfinancialandorganizationallevelaswellasintheareaoffishingmaterials,buttheyarebarelyorganizedwithinanassociationorsupportedbyaninstitution‐atpolicylevelfisheriesareconsideredasmaledomain,thereforewomenaredisproportionatelyrepresentedinpolicydevelopmentoffisheries.‐women’scommercialactivitiesinfisheriesarecontributingtoahighdegreetothefamilies’income.Currentstatisticalsurveysconfinethefocustofishermen’sincomeanddonotgiveadequateattentiontofishprocessingasaneconomicdriverwithintheentireproductchain.Theirproportionaterepresentationatthelevelofpolicydevelopmentinthefisherieswouldbeveryimportantintheareasofaccesstofinancialresources,managementofnaturalresources,improvementofcommercializationoffish. Lesson2.16.Theelaborationofastrategyfortheintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinprojectsandpoliciesforfisherieswillsupporttheparticipationoffemaleactorsinthesector.Butasfindingsshowedtheconsiderationofwomen’sneedsandstrategicinterestsisoftenlinkedtootherpolicysectorssuchashealth,nutrition,watermanagementandeducation.Thecoordinationandintegrationofresearchfindingsandpolicyrecommendationsbetweentheinvolvedministriesiscrucialforthedevelopmentofacomprehensivedevelopmentplan.Lesson2.17.Structuraldisparitiesbetweenfemaleandmaleactorsinfisheriesandwatermanagement(suchasworkroutines,legalregulations,socialresponsibilities,genderspecificlabourdivision,…)intermsofaccesstoinformationaboutillegalfishingpractices,financialsupport,educationinitiativesleadtodiscriminationandexclusionofwomenatthedecisionmakinglevel.ItislefttoinformalgroupactivitiesorNGOrelatedworktoensure(promote)femaleworkers’participationinlocalgovernanceprocesses.Lesson2.18.Socio‐ecologicalresearchonfisheriesinBurkinaFasoisreferringtodatarelyingonlocaldecisionmakersandstakeholders(managers,headofassociations,..)viewpoints,whoaremainlymale.Policyrecommendationsthereforetendtoreflectonlyapartialevaluationofthesituation.TheelaborationandimplementationofgendersensitiveprotocolsandtoolsfordatacollectionbroughtnewinsightsforsocialpracticesintheareaoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso
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1.1.3.Gender–LessonsLearned
Table1.3.LessonsLearnedfromSUSFISHResearchconcerninggenderasymmetriesinBurkinaFaso
No. LessonLearnedconcerningGenderinBurkinaFaso
3.1 Howindividualsperceiveandinterpreteventsare conditionedbytheirexpectations,whichoftendonotfitwithacompleteandrealisticunderstandingofgenderissuesinBurkinaFaso.
3.2 Participationoffemalestudentsinresearchcanbeimprovedwhentheirindividualneedsaremoreeffectivelyaddressedwithbetterfinancing,moreflexibleschedulesforfieldresearch,andmoreresponsibleteamwork.Increasedfemaleparticipationinfieldresearch,e.g.knowledgeelicitationanddatacollection,improvedthequantityandqualityofdatacollectedonfemalesubjects,suchasinthefishprocessingindustry.
3.3 AtthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedfromdevelopmentpolicy.Itoffersawaytolookathowsocialnormsandpowerstructuresimpactthelivesandopportunitiesavailabletodifferentgroupsofmenandwomen.Itexplicitlyincludesothergroupsaswell,suchasvulnerablegroupsofasociety,poorpeople,youngunemployedetc.Butinresearchpracticethisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,becauseitisdistantfrompeoples’livelihoodsandleadsoftentomisunderstandings.
3.4 The representation of female students at PhD level in social and ecological sciences is very low. Therefore in SUSFISH a participation of female PhD students was not possible. SUSFSH research revealed that weak sensitivity towards gender inequalities in the conception of pedagogical programmes for primary, secondary and university education is a significant factor for this imbalance at tertiary level.
3.5 TheGDFRlacksaspecificpolicyandstrategytoaddressgenderissuesinfisheriesmanagement.DuringSUSFISHresearchitbecameobviousthatgenderissuesinpolicymakingoftenlackthecross‐sectorialdimension.Asecondobstacleistheperceptionofgenderissuesasa“women&development”phenomenon,withouttakingintoaccounttherelationsbetweenmenandwomen,theirdisparateroles,accessesandrightsinsociety.Thirdly,itisachallengetoaddresswomen’sneedswhentheyareconsequentlyexcludedfromdecision‐makingprocesses.ThegenderstrategyfortheGDFAthatwaselaboratedinSUSFISHincorporatedSUSFISHresultsandoffersagendersensitiveapproachinfisheriesandwatermanagementinBurkinaFaso.
Lesson3.1.OurresearchconfirmstheexperienceofscientificresearchorganizationsintheNorthandelsewhereinAfricathatwomencanplayanincreasingroleinresearchwhengender
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considerationsaretakenintoaccountsoastomeettheirindividualneeds.Suchmeasuresasbetterdirectedfinancingandscheduleflexibilitywillallowthemtobecomeresponsiblemembersofresearchteams.Lesson3.2.Concerninggenderaspectsinthemanagementofnaturalresourcesoffishandwater,numerousactivitieswerefacilitatedinSUSFISHin2014inordertoensuretheparticipationofwomen,men,andvulnerablegroups.ThiswasdoneincollaborationwiththeWPleaders‐inparticularWPs4,5and7.Themainobjectivewastofocusontheconsiderationofsocioeconomicrolesattributedtowardswomenasfishprocessorsandtomeninthefieldofwatermanagementandofthefisheries.Itwasveryimportanttoinvolvewomenworkinginthefisheriessectorfordatacollection.Theseeffortswereprimarilysupportedbytheimplicationoffemalestudentsinfieldwork,whohadamuchbetteraccesstoinformationthanmalestudents.EspeciallytheleadersofWP4andWPs5and7encouragedfemalestudentsintheparticipationoftheirresearchteam.Theresultsshowanimpressiveparticipationoffishprocessingwomenandtheconsiderationoftheirpositions,needsandknowledge. Lesson3.3.AtthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedfromdevelopmentpolicy.Itisawayoflookingathowsocialnormsandpowerstructuresimpactonthelivesandopportunitiesavailabletodifferentgroupsofmenandwomen.Itexplicitlyincludesothergroupsaswell,suchasvulnerablegroupsofasociety,poorpeople,youngunemployedetc.Butatthepracticallevel,itisachallengetosharethisapproachwithpractitioners,becausegenderiswidelyunderstoodasarepartitionofroles,functionsandresponsibilitiesbetweenmenandwomen.Equalityisoftenunderstoodasequitybynumbers.SUSFISHactivitiesatthelocallevelshowedthatworkshopsandgroupdiscussionsareveryusefultonegotiateacommonmeaningandlatertoanalyzeaspectsofpowerrelationsandstructuralinequalitiesthatleadtothediscriminationofwomen.Eveninresearchpracticethisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,becauseitisdistanttopeoples’livelihoodsandleadssometimestomisunderstandings.SUSFISHisatrans‐disciplinaryproject,whichaimedtofostercooperationbetweenpolicymakers,practitionersandresearchers.Thediversityofgenderconceptsofinsocial,politicalandecologicalsciencesrequiredthatwefirsthostdebatestonegotiateacommonunderstandingamongspecialistsinordertoworkwithit.TheSUSFISHteamchangedtheprojectplanandorganizedaseriesofworkshopsinordertodevelopaprojectstrategytointegrateaspectsofexclusionintothesetoftoolsforfieldresearch(accesstoresourcessuchastime,money,information,equipment,fishquality,etc.,butalsoaccesstoeducation,controlaswellasparticipationindecisionmakingprocesses).Besidesthesetoolkitsoneresultofthemultidisciplinaryworkshopswasthatthereistheneedforastrategytointegrategenderaspectsinfisheriesmanagementandresearch.TheresultsandstrategicinputsweredisseminatedinmanychannelssuchastheMaquisdesSciencesdedicatedtoGenderinfisheriesorganizedinclosecooperationwiththeIRDandtheFrenchinstituteinOuagadougou.ThemultidisciplinarycharacterofSUSFISHofferedtheopportunitytoempiricalresearchin2014wedevelopedamorepreciseconceptualizationofgenderasanintegrativeapproachinsocio‐ecologicalsciences.Lesson3.4.ThelowparticipationofwomenatallcareerlevelsinecologicalscienceswasachallengeforSUSFISHprojectmanagement.Byanalyzing structurallyandsocially‐causeddisparitieswithinacademia, SUSFISH experts stated that this phenomenon is perceived as a decision of femaleacademics,whichisnotrelatedtosocialandeconomicfactors.SUSFISHresearchshowedthatfemalestudents are often older thanmale students and have to fulfill duties such as child care, incomegeneratingactivitiesandtointegratethemintheirscientificcareerplanning.Theirdecisionnottocontinue in theBurkinabeeducationsystemuntil theyachieveadoctoral thesis isoften linkedtosocialconstraintsandnotbecauseoflowinterest.ThislessonisvalidatedbythefactthateventheUniversity of Ouagadougou considered the phenomena that female students’ careers are hard to
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continueinBurkinaFasowhenonceinterruptedbecauseofpregnancyofhighpriorityinitsstrategy2014‐2025.And thus thisphenomenon is also linked to a structural deficit of girls’ promotion atprimaryandsecondarylevel.Lesson3.5.OneoutcomeofttheSUSFISHworkshopsongenderperspectivesintheresearchagendawastherecommendationtodevelopagenderstrategyinfisheriesfortheGDFRfortheintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinprojectsandpoliciesforfisheriesandwatermanagement,whichwascompletedsuccessfullyin2014.SUSFISHfindingswereevaluatedandintegratedintheelaborationof the strategy.Exchangeswith theBurkinabèMinistryofWomenandGender contributed to theelaborationprocessaswell.Furthermoretheconsiderationofhalieuticresourceswithinthegenderstrategy plan of theMinistry of Agriculture could be proposed. In future this strategywill allowdevelopment of a tool to integrate scientific expertise and adaptivemanagement in the fisheriessector‐ The work of SUSFISH contributed significantly to its elaboration. SUSFISH promotedsuccessfulplanningandimplementationofgender‐sensitiveactivities,programsandstrategiesinthefieldofthefisheries(PleafortheconsiderationofgenderintheactionplanofMRAH)andcontributedtobetterdocumentationofgender‐specificresearchfindings.Besidesonnationalleveltheresultsandreflections of 2014 contribute to a better understanding of constraints and challenges for thereduction of gender disparities in PNSR (e.g. impacts of regulations) and to the elaboration ofsolution‐orientedmeasures.
1.1.4.EducationTable1.4.LessonsLearnedfromSUSFISHResearchconcerningEducationinBurkinaFasoNo. LessonLearnedconcerningEducationinBurkinaFaso
4.1 Thepotentialforgoodresearchisdiminishedwhenselectioncriteriaareappliedbasedon
developmentprioritiesratherthanacademicpriorities.
4.2 Muchmoretimeisneededtofullydevelopthepotentialofsupervisor‐studentrelationsaspartofteamworkmaturing.Thismayrequiremorefundingattheoutsettogivesufficientattentiontothischallenge.
4.3 Delaysinprocessingvisasandinpaymentcanseriouslydamageaneducationprogram.Onlycandidateswhocanaffordwaitingwithoutpaymentforseveralmonthswillbesuccessful.
4.4 ItisnotenoughtosimplyhaveaMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)betweenpartnerinstitutionsintheNorthandtheSouth.Sufficienteffortneedstobemadetotranslateandinterpretexactlywhatcommitmentsarerequiredintermsofcurriculum(teachingandlearning)tosuccessfullyachievetheacademicdegreesthattheprojectproposes.
4.5 Moreresourcesneedtobeinvestedtoeliminatelanguagebarriers(e.g.FrenchtoEnglish)thatreducethelearningcapacityofstudentsfromtheSouthwhentheystudyintheNorth.
4.6 Transdisciplinaryandtransnationalresearchcooperationneedstobeinformedbydeeperreflectiononbiasesintroducedbyscientific(epistemic)andculturalpresumptions.Cross‐disciplinaryworkshopsinitiatereflection,debateanddiscussionandtherebyprovideamodelforresearchtrainingmodules. Withongoinginternationalization,theinstitutional
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andoverallconditionsofpartnerinstitutionsintheNorthandtheSoutharediverging,andasymmetriesintheaccesstoanduseofinformationandtechnologybecomeevenstronger.
4.7 Applyingscienceoftenrequiresnegotiatingthemeaningofconflictingscientificpositions,e.g.theconcepts,theoriesandprotocolsembeddedinthedevelopmentofeachdiscipline.Therefore,debateanddiscussionarepreconditionsforappliedresearch,andgroupsofjuniorresearchers(BA,MA,Phd‐candidates)shouldbeinstitutionalized(insocialandecologicaldisciplines)atfaculty/departmentlevel.
4.8 Tosucceedasresearcherswhosupportnationalpolicyformulationandinaninternationalmarketforscience,graduatestudentsfromBurkinaFasoneedadditionalskillsinscientificpracticetodefineresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryoutresearchprojects.Theirtrainingneedstogivethemaccesstothebest,latestandmostappropriatemethodsaswellasresearchfindingsinternationally.Aprerequisiteisknowledgeaboutthecreationprocessofpeer‐reviewedpublications.OftenBurkinabègraduatestudentsstopatthelevelofin‐countryreportsorpresentationsinBFconferencesanddonotcontinuetheirworkinfollow‐upproposals,presentingandnetworkingontheinternationalstage.
4.9 Structuraldeficitsattheinstitutions:workingconditionsforjuniorandseniorresearchersoftendonotallowparticipationinthecreativeprocesses,cooperation,exchange,discussionthatproducetop‐levelresearch.Morefinancialandstructuralsupportshouldbeappliedattheuniversityandsecondaryschoollevels.Specifically,appliedsciencetrainingshouldbegivenincreasingprioritybeforetheuniversityleveltofosterintegrationoftheoryandpracticeinsecondaryeducationandbetterpreparestudentswithpotentialtodoscientificresearchatthegraduatelevel.
4.10 Theinterdisciplinaryapproachenhancedtheapplicabilityofresearchresultsinthedevelopmentoftrainingcurriculaforpractitionersinthefisheriessectoras,forinstance,thecooperationbetweenhealth,social,biochemicalandnutritionalscientistswithinSUSFISHshowed.
4.11. Toworkasastudentorresearcherinthefieldofdevelopmentresearchneedstraininginunderstandingcomplexity.Thepersonalinvolvementoftheresearcheriscrucialtothewholeprocess.Jointfieldworkinteamsshouldbecomeacoreelementofcurriculaandshouldbealsoinstitutionalizedatthepartnerinstitutions.
Lesson4.1‐Thepromotionofjuniorresearchersandscientistsisakeyinstrumentforcapacity‐buildingmeasuresinresearchcooperation.TheprioritiesoftheAustrianDevelopmentProgramforCooperationintermsofthepromotionofhighereducationsystemsinBurkinaFasoarefocusedonstrategicgoalswhichareinsomeaspectshardtocombinewiththemaingoalsofresearchcooperation.Onereasoncouldbethatthecriteriaforgoodresearchcooperationdonotfullyoverlapwiththosefordevelopmentcooperationprograms..WeexperiencedthisgapregardingtheselectionofPhDcandidatesfromtheSouthforfunding.Theselectionofcandidatesrequiredacomprehensive(interdisciplinaryandcollaborative)searchthatproducedalistofseveralcandidatesthatwasfirstprioritizedbyacademicsonthebasisofscientificqualificationcriteria.Thislistwasthenjudgedbyprofessionalsindevelopmentbasedongenderandagecriteria.
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Lesson4.2–Structuraldeficits:WithintheAPPEARprogramastudent‐supervisorrelationshipshouldbeconsideredasateamandnotmore‐or‐lessunderstoodasaservicedelivery.Educationismuchmorethanacommoditythatisshippedonaone‐waystreetfromNorthtoSouth.Itisanexchangeofinformationmediatedbyseparateculturalframeworks.Jointsupervision:Studentsaresupervisedpart‐timeataforeign(distant)institutioninordertogettrainedininternationalhighlevelscience.Buttofullydevelopsuchanexchangerequiressufficienttime,whichmeansnotsimplythreemeetingsover4yearsasiscurrentlybudgeted.Jointsupervisionneedsclosecooperationbetweenpartners.Jointsupervisionofdoctoralstudentsneedsface‐to‐facecontactbetweentheteachers(travelcostsshouldbecovered)‐InSUSFISHwemanagedthefinancialgaponlybyflexiblemanagementofbudgetarydedication.Supervisionshouldstartearly,evenbeforevisasaregranted,suchthatstudentsarebetterpreparedwhentheyarriveatpartnerinstitutionsintheNorth.Inasimilarlight,networkingtimemustbereckonedinthedesignofPhD‐educationalprograms.Lesson4.3‐Evenifallapplicationsareconfirmed,itstilltakes(toomuch)timeuntilthestudentcancometohishostuniversity.Therewereexamplesofsuccessfulapplicationswhichcouldnotberealizedbecausethestudent’scareerplanschangedsignificantlyduringthetimeofwaitingforthevisatobegranted.Scholarshipshadtobereselectedforasecondtime.Thishasconsequencesforthewholefundingperiodforresearchcooperation.Thestandardfundingmodelusedbyalldonorinstitutionsallocates3years.Thisthree‐yearintervalisaminimumfordoctoralprogram(includingdefense)withouttravelling,visum,flight,administration,applicationsetc.ExperiencesinSUSFISHshowthatatleasttwomoreyearsarenecessarytocompletethedoctoratewithintheschedule(includingpublications&finaldefense).Lesson4.4–Manyhighereducationinstitutionshaveadequatequality‐assuranceprocessesfordomesticdelivery.Bilateralarrangementsbetweenuniversitiesallowmutualidentificationofmeasuresofquality:TheMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)betweenBOKUandtheUniversityofOuagadougouwasveryimportantforacceptanceofstudentsfromtheSouthatBOKU.Standardizedcurriculatheoreticallyguaranteeaccreditationofdegrees.Inpractice,comprehensionofthepartner’ssystemisnotensuredbytheinternationally‐acknowledgedframework.AlotofadditionalinformationandtranslationworkwasrequestedforthestudiesprogrammeatBOKUinordertoapprovetheofficialrecognitionofcertificates.Qualityassuranceprogramscanbetimeconsumingintermsofcommunicationandinformationflows,buttheyjustifythetimeinvestedwhenstudenttrainingraisestheirworkqualityandlowerstheneedforrevision.Lesson4.5‐Languagebarriers:TheskillsexpectedinscientificEnglish(1.comprehension,2.writing)canbeasignificantproblemforstudentscomingfromAfricanUniversitiestoEuropeanresearchinstitutions–esp.innaturalsciencesandespeciallyforstudentsfromFrancophonenations.Throughinternationalizationofhighereducationsystemsmobilityandtransnationaleducationexperiencesarepromotedtofostercompetitiveness,innovativeness,mobility,languageskills,internationalworkingskills.Structuraladaptations(e.g.thepromotionofEnglishasthelanguageoftuition)shouldnotonlyfocusonattractingstudentsfromall(other)regions.Suchstrategicorientationshouldprovideeffectivecross‐culturaleducationalpreparationforalluniversitystudentsandimproveequityamongthem..AsithappenedinSUSFISHlecturesattheNorthernpartner’sinstitutionofferabasictraininginscientificEnglish,whichisfarmorechallengingthanthe“conversational”EnglishclassesofferedintheSouth.Butthisoftenrevealsagapbetweentraininginscientificwritingofferedbyhostuniversitiesandthespecificneedsofthegroupofforeignstudentsfrompartnerinstitutions.Overall,thishighlightstheneedfortraininginscientificwritinginEnglishintheSouth.Butconsideringthenatureofscientificpartnershipsweneedanapproachwhichissensitivetopowerasymmetries,e.g.acomprehensiveanalysisofresearch/educationspecificdifferencesandresearchimpedingfactors(accesstoliterature,
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languages,scientificwritingandreadingexpertise,accesstointernationalscientificnetworks)aswellasdiscriminatingfactors(e.g.language).Lesson4.6‐Methodologicalapproachesdifferdependingonhowtheyareembeddedindifferentepistemictraditions(waysofrecognizingandusingknowledge).Thesedifferenceschallengeeffortstoshareandexchangeexperiences&developnewinnovative,researchrelatedapproaches.Ithighlightsthedangerofunilateralknowledgetransfer(North‐to‐South)simplyfacilitatinguncriticalreflectionofpresumptions. Transnationalteamwork&exchangeshouldbeemphasizedtoencouragemethodologicalreflectionandunderstanding(e.g.clusteranalysis)forstudentsandreflectionofconceptsoninterculturalcooperation.Forappliedresearchinsocio‐ecology:ifknowledgeandtrainingislacking,theimbalanceinpowerrelationsgetsreinforcedthroughtransculturalcooperation(e.g.stereotypesarereproducedviceversa).InSUSFISHteamworkatthelevelofjointfieldworkinvolvedfruitfuldiscussionsonmethodologicalapproachesthatwerepossiblebecauseacommonunderstandingofresearchcontextsanditssocio‐culturalconditions(gender,politics,ecology,..)wasneeded.ThesetrainingexperiencesshouldbeintegratedincurriculaatpartneruniversitiesintheSouth(e.g.UOandUBD)aswelltheNorth(e.g.BOKU).Thecurriculumshouldalsointegratetraininginincreasingtherigorofempiricalresearchthroughbetterunderstandingoftheoryandmethodology.Lesson4.7‐Understandinganyscientificapproachthoroughlyisimportantforscienceresearchandespeciallysuchapplicationsasmodeling:therefore1.toquestion,tocontesttotryandcreateanindividualapproach2.tolearntoargueown(controversial)positionsshouldbecomepartoftheacademictraining.Curriculadevelopmentshouldintegratepracticeintheseapplications.Lesson4.8‐TosucceedashighqualityresearchersinaninternationalmarketforscienceasagraduatestudentfromBurkinaFasoadditionalskillsinscientificpracticearerequiredattwolevels.
1.toshowinitiativeindefiningtheirownresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryingouttheresearch.Itisnotenoughtopasssuccessfullyacourse(e.g.statistics).Astudentresearcherneedstocomprehendorproperlyapplythebest,latestandmostappropriatemethodsthatweresupposedlylearnedinthecourse.
2.toengageinmakingresearchfindingsavailableinternationally.Aprerequisiteisknowledgeaboutthecreationprocessofpeer‐reviewedpublications.OftenBurkinabègraduatestudentsstopatthelevelofin‐countryreportsorpresentationsinBFconferencesanddonotcontinuetheirworkinfollow‐upproposals,presentingandnetworkingontheinternationalstagebygoingabroadtoconferencesandbecomingsufficientlyknowntointernationalconsortiasotheyareinvitedforfollow‐upwork.SUSFISHobservationshighlighttheneedforfurtherin‐depthstudiesontheeducationsysteminBurkinaFasoasawhole,evenbeforegraduatelevelcourses,inordertoanalyzehinderingfactorsforstudents’internationalcareerdevelopment.Lesson4.9‐Thehighereducationsystemsinbothpartnercountriesunderwentsubstantialchanges,buttheexperiencesatnationalleveldifferlargely.InAustriaseveralyearsofapplyingtheBolognasystemrequiredseveralperiodsofadaptation.InBurkinaFasothefirstgenerationofuniversityteachersisapplyingBA/MAsystemforthefirsttime,butstilltherearemanycourseswhicharetaughtfollowingtheoldsystem.SincetheUniversityofOuagadougouunderwentacurriculareformtherearemoreopportunitiestoexperiencethispersonal(active)involvementintheproductionofscientificknowledge.Besides4.10.‐AlotofemphasiswasputontheimplementationoftheinterdisciplinaryapproachofSUSFISH.Theteamorganizedasetofworkshopstobringtogetherdiverseresearchfindingsandto
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definejointlessonslearned.Thisstrategicprojectfocusenhancedsignificantlytheapplicabilityofresearchresultsinthedevelopmentoftrainingcurriculaforpractitionersinthefisheriessectorasforinstancethecooperationbetweenhealth,social,biochemicalandnutritionalscientistswithinSUSFISHshowed.Toimprovethenutritionalstatusofpregnantwomen,SUSFISHresultsonthenutritionalqualityoffoodwereusedtoformulateatrainingmanual(advices,listofproducts,useoffishandothersourcesofproteins).Apilotprojecttotrainsixmidwivesforseveralweeksiscurrentlybeingimplemented.TheirabilitytoadvicepregnantwomeninnutritionisnowbeingassessedintheareaofSindou(Banfora).4.11.ExperientialEducation–participatoryscienceToworkasastudentorresearcherinthefieldofdevelopmentresearchneedstraininginunderstandingcomplexity.Buthowdoweapproachcomplexandchangingsystems?Innaturalsciencesweexaminedynamics,thatweanticipated.Insocialsciencesweanalyzethedifferentactorsalongtheirsocialinteractionsandrepresentations.Butinbothapproachesthepersonalinvolvementoftheresearcheriscrucialtothewholeprocess.TheSUSFISHteamofexpertsunderstandsdoingresearchasaninteractiveprocess,whichis‐besidestheinteractionsinthefield‐cruciallyshapedbytheresearchers’personalfactorssuchasbiography,languages,socialclass,nationalityandgender.Thereforeatalllevelsofcooperationweencouragedexchangeofideasanddebateinordertonegotiatethemeaningsofdifferentconcepts,theoriesandmethods.Thisaimbecamesignificantlyreinforcedbythestudents’preparednesstoparticipateinforeignresearchcontexts.ThetwoPhD‐studentsfromBurkinaFaso,whostudiedinAustriaandthefourAustrianMAstudentswhostudiedinBurkinaFasoformedagroupofyoungscholarswhowantedtoreflectondifferentresearchcontexts.Togethertheyhadtheopportunitytoexperiencepracticalconstrainsandlearnhowtointegratethistransculturalexperienceintotheresearchprocess.ItresultedinajointdatacorpusasbasisforseveralnewresearchquestionsonbioassessmentandmanagementofBurkinabèwaterbodiesandfisheries.AttheendofSUSFISHthefirstgenerationofpublicationsandthesesshowsanimpressivecontributionofjuniorscientistsbasedonthejointlycollecteddataduringfieldwork.
1.1.5.PartnershipConcerningpartnership,the importantlessonisthatcommunicationviameetings,workshopsand
symposia for instanceare important tostrengthenpartnershipandshareresources.Also,student
exchange should be promoted in such project because it leads to effective sharing of knowledge,
resourcesandexperience.Moreover,thisalsoreinforcesthecapacityof local institutions.Another
importantlessonwelearned:aprojectdesignshouldparticularlyconsiderjointresearchactivities
forjunior(andsenior)scientistswithadequatefinancialresourcesandflexibilityintermsoftimeand
coordination for a joint and continuous supervision. It is obvious that these efforts should be
embeddedinagreaterprocessofdiscussionandinvolvementofthewholeprojectteam.Theproject
designshouldalsointegratesystemanalysiselementsbecausethisexercisegivesarealoverviewand
summaryoftheprojectachievementstopartnersthemselvesandclearlyhighlightstheirdifferent
perspectives.
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1.2ImportantRemainingQuestionsTheknowledgebaseestablishedbySUSFISHresearchisconsiderable,butitisonlyagoodstarttowardsthecriticalmassofinformationneededtoinformthecreationandreformofpolicyandpracticeforBFfisheries.Thepowerofatransdisciplinaryapproachisthatitprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewbyintegratinginsightsfromdiverseperspectives.Butthispowerisonlyrealizedbyfrequentreappraisalandrevisionofresearchquestionsandmethodsasnewknowledgeisgained.Improvementofthisknowledgebaserequiresactiveresearchintothemostpertinentquestionsthatremainoutstandingafterthisroundofresearchiscompleted.Thefollowingtwosectionsidentifysomeofthemostcriticalquestionsinthebiophysicalsciences(Section1.2.1)andthenon‐biophysicalsciences(Section1.2.2)thatcanprofitablyinformfutureresearchagendasinBurkinaFasoandotherWestAfricannationsfacingsimilarchallengeswithinlandfisheries.1.2.1.BiophysicalSciencesThissectiondescribesoutstandingresearchquestionsthatremainaftercompletionofanalysisofdatabySUSFISHpartnersstrivingtoaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.biology,chemistry,andecology.Table3–KeyremainingquestionsinbiophysicalsciencesafterSUSFISHNo. QuestionremainingafterbiophysicalscienceresearchunderSUSFISH
3.1 Howcanweimprovecapacitytoidentifyandclassifyfishand benthicinvertebrates
inBurkinaFaso?
3.2 Bywhatmeanscanwedevelopprotocolstostandardizesamplingforfishandbenthicinvertebrates?
3.3 Whatartificialmethodscanboostfisheryproductivity;whataretheiradvantagesanddisadvantages,andhowcanweimproveandapplytheminBurkinaFaso?
3.4 Howcanwedevelopmethodstobio‐monitorforindicesofwaterqualityandfisheryintegritythatareapplicableinBurkinaFaso?
3.5 Howcanwedevelopmethodstousebenthicinvertebratesasbio‐monitorsforindicesofwaterqualitythatareapplicableinBurkinaFaso?
3.6 Bywhatmeanscanweassesstheresilienceoffishcommunitiestoprolongedexposuretoanthropogenicpressures,e.g.chronicstressandepisodicshocks?
3.7 Howcanweassesstheimpactsofrivernetworkconnectivityonfishecology?
3.8 WhatprotocolsmustbeappliedtodevelopanecologicalclassificationofreservoirsandriversthatisapplicableinBurkinaFaso?
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3.9 WhichoptionsforfishmanagementrequirefurtherdataandtestingtohelpimprovethesustainabilityoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso?
3.10 Whataretheimpactsofhabitatuseandpreferenceson:spawning,larvae,juvenilesandadultsofdifferentfishspeciesinBurkinaFaso?
3.11 Howcanwedistinguishtheimpactsofpressuresonfishtaxa,bothaloneasindividualpressuresandindifferentcombinations(syngergism)?
3.12 Whatrelationshipsexistbetweendamsize,thedynamicsofriversandvariousfishcommunitiesand/orfishspeciesinBurkinaFaso?
3.13 Whataretheeffectsofinvasiveplantsonfishdiversityandproductivity?
3.14 Howcanwemorepreciselyassessthehumanimpactsonwaterquantityandqualityinreservoirstobetterinformpolicyandpractice?
3.15 Howdoadultfishsizeandeggproductioninfluencefisheryproductivity?
3.16 Howdoagriculturalimpactsaffectfishcommunitiesandfisheryproductivity?
3.17 WhatacademicprogramswillprofessionalizetheskillsandknowledgeneededtomonitorwaterandfisheriesatthehigherlevelsthattheSUSFISHprojectaimsfor?
Question3.1.ImproveCapacitytoIdentifyandClassifyFishandBenthicInvertebratesinBF:ManagingaquaticecosystemsandfisheriesbasedonindicatorspecieswillbegreatlyfacilitatedbybettertoolstoidentifyandclassifybenthicinvertebratesandfishinBurkinaFaso.ThisrequiresdevelopmentofspecificBIandfishclassificationkeysforBurkinaFaso.ForBIthiscouldbedonegradually,withsimplekeysonfamilylevelforlessexperiencedusers,followedbymoredetailedones.FurtherfishcommunitysurveysinBurkinaFasoarealsomandatedbythefactthatfullyonethirdofspecieswithredliststatushavenotyetbeenclassifiedattheworldlevel,muchlessatnationallevel.AdeterminationkeyfortheBurkinabéfishspeciesisimportanttoimprovethequalityoftheaccesseddata.WeworkedwithanWest‐Africankey,whichcontainsmorethan10.000species,whichmakesdeterminationverytiringandsometimeshardlypossible..Question3.2.ProtocolstostandardizesamplingforfishandbenthicinvertebratesAguidelineforastandardizedsamplingoffishandBIforBFshouldbedevelopedinordertobuildindicesbasedoncomparabledata.TheseprotocolsshouldcoverhowtouseCast‐Netsandelectricfishingforstreamsandsmallwaterbodies.Inreservoirsandlarge,lenticriversectionsothersamplingmethodstoinvestigateinclude:Gillnetsandlonglines.
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Question3.3.Artificialmethodstoboostfisheryproductivity:FishStocking:Whatimpact(s)doesfishstockinginreservoirshaveonfishdiversity,productivityandabundanceofexistingfishcommunities?Whatimpactsresultfromstockingpotentiallyinvasivespecies?Aquaculture:Whataretheecologicalconsequences/risksofaquacultureforBurkinaFaso’sreservoirs?CanGISmodellingtoassessaquaculturepotentialinBFcapableofsupportingresearchintothisaspect,specificallyfortheWestAfrican/Sahelzone?Damsandreservoirs:Whataretheecologicalconsequences/risksofaquacultureforBurkinaFaso’sreservoirs?istheGISmodellingtoassessaquaculturepotentialinBFconsideringthisaspect,specificallyfortheWestAfrican/Sahelzone?Fishladdersandfishmigration:SomefishfromBurkinadomigrate,anddamsconstitutebarrierstothismigration.Sometimefishladdersarebuilt,buttheirefficiencywasnevertested.Aretheseladdersuseful,andwhichkindofladdersarethemostefficient?Someevidencesuggeststhatbrokendaminfrastructurepermitsmigration.Towhatexentisthistrue,andcanitbeappliedinfishladderdesign?Question3.4.FishCommunitiesandBio‐monitoringTheeffectivenessofanyindex‐drivenmanagementpolicieswillincreasewithbetterknowledgeoffishandBItaxonomy,distribution,ecology,andconservationstatus.DevelopinganindexbasedonindicatorspeciesforwaterqualityandquantitymanagementinBFrequirescomparingimpactedandreferencesites.Whataretheexperiencesfromothercountries,e.g.Austria,othernationsinAfrica,AsiaortheAmericas?Whatarethesignificantconstraints?ref.Deliverable3.1.“..developingafish‐basedindexforwaterqualityandquantitymanagementinBFWhatcouldbetheeffects/thecontributionofSUSFISHtoecologicalassessmentmethodsconcerningtherelativizationofresearchresults(e.g.SouthandWestAfrica)bringslighttonewknowledgeaboutfish“Tohelptoincreasetheresponsibilityoflocalpeoplefortheiraquaticenvironments(“youcanonlyprotectwhatyouknowandvalue”),thedevelopmentofasimpleandeasy‐to‐usewaterqualityevaluationsystemisnecessary.Ausefultoolforthispurposewouldbearapidfieldassessmenttool,suchaswhathasbeendevelopedfortheHindukush‐Himalaya‐Region.(seewww.assess‐hkh.at.)BeforepromotinganynewscoringsystemitisnecessarytotestitbroadlyindifferentregionsofBurkinaFaso.“Howwouldsuchabroadtestingprocessbedesigned,andwhatdifferentactorsshouldbeinvolvedsuchthatlocalpeopleaswellasacademicsandgovernmentagentstakeownershipandapplyit?Whatisneededforthisprocesshowmuchtimeandwhowilluseit?Scientists?Politicians?Question3.5.BenthicInvertebratesandBio‐monitoring.SUSFISHfieldresearchshowsthatinBFabiologicalriver/waterqualityassessmentsystem1)canbedevelopedandtestedinareasonableshorttime(threeyears),2)willmeetthe
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criteriaofthehigheststateofarts,and3)canbeestablishedasathreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecision:
Level1:aRapidFieldMethodology(screening);Suchmethodsarecrudeandsimple,e.g.quickdipswithanet,torapidlyandcheaplyobtaindataaboutthepresenceanddiversityofaquaticfauna.Level2:aBioticScore(BS);Currently,developmentofLevel2,aBS,ismostadvanced.AlthoughbasedononlyafewsamplingsitesthemasterthesisofKoblinger&Trauner(2014)gaveclearevidencethataBioticScorecanbedevelopedinBF.BSvaluesclearlyreflectdifferentdegreesofstressintensity(e.g.expressedasintensityofagriculturallanduseorsomechemicalparameters).Twopossibleways(thatcanbecombined)canbeusedtodevelopaBS:1)adaptinganexistingmethodor2)developinganownmethodologytoevaluateanddescribetheecologicalstatusofwaterbodies.SUSFISHresearchshowsthebasicabilityoftheSouthAfricanScoringSystem(SASS),whichisbasedonbenthicinvertebrates(BI)asbioindicatorsthatreactinmeasurablewaystoenvironmentalstress.ToadapttheSASSforBurkinaFasothefollowingactivitiesneedtobeundertaken:a)scoresforBIhavetobeadapted;b)BIspeciesthatarenotlistedintheSASSneedtobeassignedascore(e.g.Ampullariidae,Paludomidae,Iridinidae,Chaoboridae);c)separatesystemshavetobedevelopedforrunningwaterandforreservoirsandtheaspectofperennialorintermittentdischargehastoberegarded;d)tobeabletoapplythereferenceconditionapproacheco‐geographicregionswithsimilarconditionshavetobedefined;e)asufficientnumberoftestsitesneedstobeinvestigatedtocoverthevarietyofreference,good,moderate,poorandheavilyimpactedsitesaswellastheeffectsofdifferentstressorsandimpacts.Alsotheoxygenconcentrationsinthewaterinfluencetheinvertebrates’reactionaccordingly;pollutedoreutrophiedwaterbodiesshowheavyunder‐orover‐saturations.Aspecialemphasismustbegiventoadaptthebioticscoremethodologytoclassifystagnantwatersandreservoirs,asthesescoringsystemswerenotdesignedtoassessstagnantorlenticwaterbodies.Listofpossiblestressorsthatshouldbeinvestigatedwithrespecttotheirimpactonthebiotaandtheecologicalbalance&functions:❖ Recreation❖ Tourism❖ Sport❖ Religion(includingholyfish,holycrocodiles)❖ Fishery❖ Drinkingwater❖ Irrigation❖ Nearshoreorshallowwateragriculture❖ Cattledrinking/washing❖ Directtoilet/washinguse❖ Sewagedumping
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❖ Pointpollutionbysewers/pipesLevel3:aMultimetricapproach(MMI).NeedmorehereApreliminaryversion(validforadistinctarea)ofaMultimetricIndexcouldbedevelopedbasedontheworkofIdrissaKabore(PhDthesis).Severaltestedmetricsshowahighcorrelationwithenvironmentalvariablesandprovideacleargradientofthemetricsreactionunderstress.Thediscriminationabilitytestedsofarispromising.
Question3.6.ResilienceoffishcommunitiesTheresilienceoffishcommunitiesisbroadlyindicatedbythepersistenceofsomespeciesin“highpressure”sites.Isthespeciescompositionofsuchsitespredictableenoughtousefullyclassifytheseassemblagesas“communities,”andifso,whatisthefishcompositionlikein“lowestanchorpoint”/siteswithamaximumpressureintensity,e.g.ThewastewaterchannelsinOuagadougou?Howdoesfishspeciescompositionchangeacrossarangeofsitesexhibitingadiversityofpressuresofdifferentdegreesofintensity?Underwhatconditionsandunderwhatkindsofrestorationeffortsathigh‐pressuresitesdofishcommunitiesrebound,andhowcanwemeasuredifferentreboundparameters,e.g.maxima,minima,overalldynamics?Question3.7.AssessingtheimpactsofrivernetworkconnectivityonfishecologyDoes“artificialization”ofhydrographicnetworks,e.g.cascadesofinfrastructuresalonghydro‐graphicnetworksandtheabsenceoffishby‐passes,disruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodsandpreventfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs?Howcansuchquestionsbetested?Whenisthebesttimeforanassessment,andhowcantheseasonalaspectsbestandardized?Forexample,whenwewerefishing(atthebeginningofanearlydryseason),somehabitatswerealreadydryingout,whileotherswerestillconnected.Question3.8.Ecologicalclassificationofreservoirsandrivers‐applicableinBurkinaFaso.Reservoirsrepresentauniquetypeofwaterbodyonaworldwidescale,butmostassessmentsystemsdonotprovidetheoptiontoassessstagnantwaterbodies,acommonsituationinBurkinaFaso.Amethodforclassificationandtypologyofreservoirsandbroad,lenticreachesofriversneedstobedevelopedthatissensitivetoBFconditions,wherestagnantwaterbodiesareusuallyunderstrongagriculturalpressures.ThedifferencesincatchmentsizeandStrahlerorderaswellasthedifferentecoregionseventuallyrequirearivertypologyforfurtheranalysis.AccordingtoManoinprep.ThebiotaintheComoecatchmentvariesalot.IntheNakambecatchment,thereisadownstreamgradientoffishspeciescompositionallthewaydowntoGhana.Developmentoftheseclassificationmethodsmayrequiredatafromneighboringcountries(Frimponginprep.FishDiversityinWestAfrica).Question3.9.FishManagementPolicyOptionstoInvestigateClosedseason,specificmeshsizesofthefishingnets,minimumormaximumlandingsizeandprotectionstateofrarespeciescouldimprovethesituationregardingbiodiversityandbiomassoffish.
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Question3.10.Assessinginteractionsbetweenhabitatandbiota(taxaand/orguilds)ManagingfisheriesinAfricaischallengedbyalackofreliabledataconcerningAfricanfishandecology.Thespecificcompositionoffishcommunitiesismainlyinfluencedbyinteractionsbetweenanimalsandtheirbioticandabioticenvironment.Habitatisregardedasoneofthekeyfactorsmediatingtheseinteractions.Moreknowledgeisimportanttomanageandmonitorthehealthofecosystemsandthesustainabilityoffisheries,whichinturncontributestofoodsecurity.Thereisaneedtoinvestigateimpactsofhabitatuseandpreferenceson:spawning,larvae,juvenilesandadults.Thisincludessuchparametersaslentic/lotic,temperature,oxygenconcentration,andconductivity.Question3.11.DistinguishingSeparateAnthropogenicPressuresonFishCommunitiesSincetheimpactsofmany,differentpressuresarecorrelated,futureresearchneedstohelpusdistinguishtheimpactsofindividualpressuresonfishtaxa.Howcanweintegrateresearchtodistinguishtheseparatecontributionsofmultiplepressuresthatdegradeaveragefisheryhabitats:mining,deforestation,sedimentation,andriverbankdevelopment?Question3.12.Hydrology,ClimateChange,DamsandFishCommunitiesHowdothedynamicsofsurfacewatersaffectfishcommunitiesinriversandreservoirs?Howhavedamschangedriverdynamicsovertime?Thisisrelatedto“environmentalflows,”i.e.arivershouldhavesufficientwateratallseasonstosustainfishcommunities.Howdoesdamsize(largevssmall)affectfishcommunities?Thisrelatestoreservoirtypology.Itappearsthatfishcanmigrateoversmalldamsbutnotlargedams.Question3.13.Effectsofinvasiveplantsonfishdiversityandproductivity.Inmanyreservoiragriculturepollutionandurbanwastes(sewage)leadtoimportantbloomofsaprophytesandalgae,howdothisaffectfishandfisheries?CanfishorBMIbethesolutionofthisproblem?.Question3.14.HumanImpactsonWaterQuantityandQualityinReservoirsDoessedimentationreducereservoirvolumestocriticalextents,especiallytowardtheendofthedryseason,suchthatwaterqualitydeclinesandimpactsfisheryproductivity?Doexcessivewaterwithdrawals,duetominingandirrigation,reducetheavailablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasonbelowthresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason?Question3.15.Fisheryproductivity,adultfishsizeandeggproductionHashumanpressure,especiallyoverfishing,soreducedaverageadultfishbodysizethatfisheriesproductivity(ofeggsand,ultimately,adults)requiresextrememeasures(fishingbans,aquaculture)torecover?Question3.16.AgriculturalimpactsonFisheryProductivityDoartificialfertilizersinrunoffsostimulateproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.Ceratophyllumsubmersum)thattheyseverelyimpactthecatchabilityoffish?Dopesticidesbio‐accumulateinfishpopulationsanddegradeaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascades)?
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Question3.17.WhatacademicprogramswillprofessionalizetheskillsandknowledgeneededtomonitorwaterandfisheriesatthehigherlevelsthattheSUSFISHprojectaimsfor?IntheUniversityofOuagadougouthereisnodiplomainlimnologyorrelatedfieldlikeAquaticresourcemonitoring.Therefore,itisimportanttothinkabouthowtoimplementaMasteroflimnologyandAquaticresourceMonitoringinoneoftheUniversitiesofBurkina.
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1.2.2.SocialSciencesThissectiondescribesoutstandingresearchquestionsthatremainaftercompletionofanalysisofdatabySUSFISHpartnersstrivingtoaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.sociology,economics,politicsandanthropology.Table4–Keyquestionsremainingforeconomic,socialandpoliticalscienceresearchafterSUSFISHiscompleted.No. Question
4.1 Istheconceptofsustainabilitytoovaguetobeusefulforpolicy‐drivenresearch?
4.2 Whatarethechallengesandopportunitiesforcreatingsustainablefisheriesthat
arecreatedbythehistoryofunpredictableshiftsinadministrativeresponsibilityattheNationallevelofgovernance?
4.3 Doesdecentralizationhelpornotinpromotingtheharmonizationofdifferentlevelsofgovernanceaswellasrepublicanversustraditionalinstitutions?
4.4 HowcanweassesstheeconomicpotentialforlocalfisheriesandaquacultureinBurkinaFaso?
4.5 Howcanweshapefuturetransdisciplinaryresearchthroughbetterunderstandinganduseofdifferentformsofknowledge?
4.6 Howcanweassessthepotentialforfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel?
4.7 Whatmethodsareneededtoassesshowlocalknowledgeinfluencestheformulationandimplementationoffishingregulations?
4.8 Whatdifferenttypesofparticipatoryprocessescouldenhancepolicyandpracticeinfisheriesmanagementprograms?
4.9 Howdoethnicity,genderandsocio‐economicstatusinfluencethepotentialtoparticipateintheformulationandimplementationoffisherypolicyandpractice?
4.10 Howiscommunicationinfluencedbythelanguageusedindifferentphasesofactionresearch?
4.11
Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruptionandtheirspecificinfluencesonfisheriesmanagementatdifferentgovernancelevels?
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4.12 Howisthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinfluencedbythecombinationofsubsistencevs.commercialfishing?
4.13 Whatistherelationshipbetweenafisherman’sskilllevelsandthecapacityoflearnandapplynewfishingpractices?
4.14 Whatpreventsthenationallevelfrombettersupportforlocalfisheriesmanagementandfromharmonizingfisheriespolicyandpracticeacrossalllevels?
Question4.1.Sustainability:isittoovagueagoaltobeuseful?Infutureresearch,howcanweassessthediverseperspectivesofdifferentstakeholdersonwhat“sustainability”isandhowthesedifferentperspectivesinfluencethechancesofimprovingfisheriesinBF?Whatdoessustainabilitymeantous,topoliticians,tolocalauthorities,fishermen,sellers,etc.?the“sustainablelivelihoodsapproach”)isconsideringamultimodalcapital,.Howusefulareourresultsiftheyarebasedonresearchthatuncriticallyassumedacommonunderstandingofsustainability(ise.g.environmentaleducation/knowledge,whichseemstobeimportantforsustainabilityoffisheriesandwatermanagementinBF)?Question4.2.InstitutionalNomadism:whatconsequencesforsustainablefisheries?Whataretheconsequencesofthemanyinstitutionalchangesoffisheriesauthoritiescitedinthereportforwaterqualityandmanagement?SUSFISHanalysisshedlightontheseshiftsandpoliticalpracticesbutfurtherresearchhastoexaminetheconsequencesofabruptandunpredictablecuttingoffofresources,staffturnovers,andlossofcompetences/experts’knowledge.Resultsshowedtheneedtoexamineitsdirectimpactonfisheriesandwatermanagementasnewpeople,newpolicies,revisedorabandonedbudgetchangesallcreateanatmosphereinwhichtheboundsofresponsibilitybecomeblurred.Question4.3.HarmonizingMultipleLevelsofGovernance:Doesdecentralizationhelpornot?TwocurrentsexistinBF:decentralizationofRepublicangovernmentandtheresurgenceofTraditionalgovernance.Howdothesetwocurrentsinfluencethechancesofestablishingsuccessfulfisheries?Importanceofdecentralizationresearch:
1.Whichaspectsofdecentralizationprocessesareleftasideinthecurrentresearch?Shouldwefocusonthoseinfutureorfocusonthemanagementofwaterresourcesonly?2.Whichperiod(s)ofdecentralizationis(are)relevanttoourresearch?3.EliteCapture–havedecentralizationandbottom‐upprocessesbeensooftencapturedbyelitesthattheyarenolongereffectivebecausenoonetruststhemtoworkanymore?
Question4.4.ExploringtheeconomicpotentialforlocalfisheriesandaquacultureHowdoesdevelopmentofaquacultureinfluencethere‐establishmentofnaturalfisheriesinBF?
1.HowstrongisthedemandoffishfoodgrowinginBF?
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2.UnderwhichconditionsfishcomingfromaquaculturesectorbecomesaffordableforBurkinabepeople?Whataboutpricedifferencesbetweenfishspecies?Isthereacheapest?ImportsfromChinaormarinefishfromW.Africancoast?3.Whyhavefishfarms/hatcheries,e.g.Bagre,fallenintodisrepairandarenotusedatall?4.Whyhavenomarketingvalue‐chainsbeensetupsuchthatfishandfishproductscanbesentinasafe(refrigerated)wayfromreservoirtoconsumer?5.Istheavailabilityofcheapimportsunderminingeffortstodeveloplocalfisheriesandfishvaluechainsjustashashappenedwith“dumping”ofcheapchickenproductsinAfricabyEurope?6.WhataboutexportofBFfishtoMaliandNiger?7.Whatmeansareinusetoraisethevaluesoffishandfishproducts(fillet,dryfish,smokedfish,friedfish,frozenfish)invaluechains?Forexample,theyhavevaluechainsforgreenbeansexportedtoEurope(ChefduCantonnearLakeBam).
Question4.5.Futuretransdisciplinaryresearch:understandingandusingdifferentformsofknowledge:Thereisacriticalneedtoassesstheimplicationsofusingdifferentformsofknowledgeforeducationanddevelopmentofcurricula,andespeciallyforknowledgeelicitationinsocio‐economicresearch.In(our)transculturalandtransdisciplinaryresearchwedependonkeyinformantsandinterpreters.
1.Howcanweassesstheirknowledge,relationsandpersonalagenda?2.Whatshouldweconsiderasimportantfactorsforthiskindofcooperationwhenplanningresearch?3.Whatdotheyneedinordertohelpuswithunderstandingandtheinterpretationoffindings?4.Whatshouldtheylearnaboutourresearch?5.Howshouldweinterpretourfindingsaboutfishermen’sknowledge:„mostfishermendeclarednottoknowanythingabouttheecologyofthenewspecies.Thosewhosaidtheyknowcannotexplain...“)?6.Howimportantarelanguageproblemsforthisoutcome?7.Howcanweensurethatourkeyinformantscanexpressthemselvesinallphasesofresearch:agendaformulation,knowledgeelicitation,andanalysis?8.Whataremethodologicalimplicationsonansweringquestions1‐7?
Question4.6.FutureDirectionofFisheriesManagementattheNationalLevel
1.WhichdataabouttheGeneralDirectorateforFisheriesResourcesisrequiredtoassessthepotentialforfisheriespolicyformulationandmanagement,especiallywithregardtodevelopmentofmanagementinstitutionsthatfunctionatandacrossalllevelsofgovernance?2.Whataretherespectivegroupsofactorsandtheirgroup‐specificinformationneedsconcerningwatermanagementresponsibilities,etc.,thatoverlapinthepolicyarenaoverseenbytheGDFR?
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3.Howcouldthisinformationbeedited,adapted,thatitmeetsthecommunicativeneedsoftheaddressees?Especiallyasweknowthatlanguagebarriersleadtodistrustandreinforceresistancetoregulations.4.Whichadditionalgenresofcommunicationbesidespolicynoteandresearchpapershouldbeassessed?
Question4.7.Localknowledgeandformulatingandimplementingfishingregulations
1.Howcanweassesstheexperiencesoflocalandgovernmentalactorsinimplementingcommonwaterandfishresourcemanagementregulations?2.Areourmethodstoelicitknowledgeappropriatetounderstandlocalstrategiesofnaturalresourcemanagements/protectionofresources?Obviouslywedidnotlearnenoughaboutthedegreeoflocalpeople’sconcern(s)andtheindicatorsfor“threat”theyidentified
Question4.8.Whatparticipatoryprocessescouldenhancefisheriesmanagementprograms?
1.Whichparticipatorymethodsavailable(ranking,mapping,villagewalks,Venndiagrams,mindmapping,richpictures,..).oractionresearchandcollaborativelearningmightbeappliedinfutureresearch?.2.Howtoensureinclusionofcritical“end”stageprocesseslike“Phasingout”,e.g.asresearchhasbeguninthecommunity,thepotentialforconflictmustbeloweredbyallowingtheexperiencesofstakeholderstobeincluded,debated,andjointdecisionsreachedabouthowtoaddressnewchallengesatthisstage
Question4.9.Howdoethnicity,genderandsocio‐economicstatusinfluencethepotentialtoparticipateintheformulationandimplementationoffisherypolicyandpractice?Dorealbarrierstoparticipationexist,and,ifso,howdotheyaffectfisheries?Forexample,involvementofwomenorstrangersdiffersfromregiontoregion.Question4.10.Howiscommunicationinfluencedbythelanguageusedindifferentphasesofactionresearch?InBurkinaFasowhatlanguage(s)shouldbeusedfora.administration,b.research(knowledgeelicitation),c.educationandinformationdissemination,andistherenoanswerthatisgeneraltoallofBurkinaFasobutspecifictodifferentethnicgroups?Whatlanguagesfacilitatea.negotiation,b.knowledgetransfer,translation,interpretationandintegration?Question4.11.Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruptionandtheirspecificinfluencesonfisheriesmanagementatdifferentgovernancelevels?TowhatextentdoescorruptioninfluencemanagementoffisheriesandwaterbodiesinBF?Forexample,governmentofficialsintheMinistryofEnvironmenthavebeenobservedtoselllicensesandkeepmoneyforthemselves.ThisaccordswiththeobservationsofJeanPierreOlivierdeSardan,ananthropologistinNiamey,oncorruptionatdifferentlevelsofgovernment.Question4.12.Howisthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinfluencedbythecombinationofsubsistencevs.commercialfishing?
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1.Towhatextentdofisheriescontributetolivelihoodsbasedmostlyonsubsistenceagricultureandtowhatextentdopurelycommercialfisheriesinfluencelivelihoods?2.Whatdoes‘subsistence’meanforlocalpeopleinBF,andhowisitactualized?Regardingthesubsistenceconcept,itnotonlycontributestoincome,butitinfluencesmanagementofnaturalresources,fisheries.
Question4.13.Whatrelatestheaverageleveloffishingskillwiththepotentialforcapacitybuildingforbetterfisherypractices?Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.Theyarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities,buttheseskillsarenotheritable,so
1.Fromwhomdonon‐professionalfishermenlearnwhentherearefewifanyprofessionalagentsorNGOstoteachandadvisethem?2.Dolowskilllevelsofnon‐professionalfishermenhamperabilitiestolearnbetterfishingmethodsandtolearnandobeyfishingregulations?
Question4.14.Whatpreventsthenationallevelfrombettersupportforlocalfisheriesmanagementandfromharmonizingfisheriespolicyandpracticeacrossalllevels?
1.Weobservedfailureoffederalagentstoenforcerulesoradviseinfisheriesdevelopmentatthelocallevel,especiallyforsmallreservoirs.Isinsufficient‘politicalcommitment’todeveloptheruralfisheries‐sectorbecausemostfisheriesresourcesarescatteredamongtoomanyverysmallreservoirs?2.Isfailuretoharmonizenational,regionalandlocalgovernanceinstitutionsaggravatedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinthehistoryofFrenchcolonialadministration.
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Section2.ImplicationsofSUSFISHResearchforScienceandPracticeTheoutstandingquestionsdescribedinSection1.2offerampleopportunitiesforresearchtoexpandtheBFfisheriesknowledgebaseindirectionsmostusefultothecreationandenforcementofpolicyandpractice.However,theseresearchquestionscanbeexpandedandmoresharplydefinedbyexploringexpertopiniontoseewhatarelikelypathsonwhichBFfisheriesmightdevelop.SUSFISHpartnersusedgroupfocussessionstodevelopandelaborateasetofscenariosoffuturefisherytrajectories.Lookingatonlyasubsetofthemostintriguingscenarios,Section2.1describesthedetails,e.g.storylinenarrative,relevantfactorsandtheirrelationships,thatarecriticaltounderstandinghowthesescenariosmightunfold.Section2.2describeshowSUSFISHpartnersusedconceptualmappingexercisestoextendthislineofinquiry.Thiswasdonebydevelopingtwo‐dimensionalmapsthatgraphicallyillustrateddiversewaysthatthecriticalfactorsmightberelated,e.g.chains,webs,feedbackloops.BoththescenariosandtheconceptualmapsofferopportunitiestofurtherrefinetheresearchquestionsoffutureprojectsexploringpathstodevelopBFfisheriesandincreasefoodsecuritythroughfishculture.2.1.ScenariosthatMeritFurtherScrutinySUSFISHhasgeneratedagreatdealofnewknowledgeaboutthepotentialtodevelopandmanagesustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso,bothasfactsandconcepts(LessonsLearned)aswellasidentifyingthemostcriticalentrypointsforfutureresearch(RemainingQuestions).However,neitherfactsnorquestionsaresufficienttofullyexploretheimplicationsoftheknowledgegained,especiallyintermsofthedynamiccomplexityofasocial‐ecologicalsystem.Howmighteventsunfoldunderdifferentsetsofconditions?Whattrendshavebeencriticaltothepresentstateofaffairs,andhowmightthesetrendschangeovertime,shiftingtheprobabilitiesthatvariousstrategiesandpoliciesmightfailorsucceed?WorkPackage8staffopenedthedoortothedynamicimplicationsofwhathasbeenlearnedinSUSFISHbyofferingthepartnersopportunitiestodevelopscenariosoffuturedevelopmentoffisheriesthatidentifyanddescribekeytrendsanddevelopmentsthatneedfurtherattention.Scenarioscanbeusedtoguidethedevelopmentoffutureresearchagendasbecausetheyincorporateandintegrateintoonestoryline(sometimeswithmultiplethreads)anumberoffactorsthatmeritfurtherinvestigation:trends,scenariosandtheinteractionsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethedynamicsofsaidtrendsandscenarios.AssuchscenarioscanweavetogetherLessonsLearnedandImportantRemainingQuestionsintosyntheticwholesthatinviteexplorationoftherelationshipsbetweentheLessonsandtheQuestionsaswellastheircomponentfactors.Methods:PursuanttotheoverallgoalofdevelopinganoverviewofSUSFISHfindings,WP8staffworkedtoassembleandintegrateinformationinputsfromSUSFISHpartnersandoutsideexperts.First,aliteraturesurvey(seeAppendix)developedabackgrounddatabaseonfisherysustainabilityfactorsevidentinbothnaturalandsocialscienceliterature.ThisbackgroundinformationwasusedtodesignandorganizeaweekofmeetingsinNovember,2013inOuagadougoutoelicitexpertknowledgeaboutbothnaturalandsocialfactorsthat
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influencefisheriessustainabilityinBurkinaFaso.TwoworkshopswereconductedinseriestoprovideadatabasefordevelopingasyntheticoverviewandsystemsanalysisofthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Thispotentialwillbeassessedbasedonsystemsanalysisofinteractionswithinandbetweenbio‐physicalandsocio‐culturaldomainsthatarekeytofisheriesmanagement.Thesemeetingsdidsobyconveningnaturalscienceprojectpartnerstoconsiderbio‐physicalfactorsandtheirinteractions.Asecondmeetingconvenedsocialscienceprojectpartnerstoconsidersocio‐culturalfactorsandtheirinteractions.Inpreparationforthisseriesofmeetings,inearlyNovemberWP8staffmetwiththeProjectleaderandtwoBurkinagraduatestudentstodevelopandapplyaquestionnairethathelpsidentifyscenariosbywhichsustainabilityisstrengthenedorweakened,andfactorsandtheirinteractionsthatarecriticaltothosescenarios.ThequestionnaireofferedeachpartneroroutsideexpertandopportunitytoidentifyscenariosthattracefuturedevelopmentsthatmayinvolveincreasingordecreasingsustainabilityofBurkinaFasofisheries.Theycoulddosodescribing:1.Whatisatrend(historical,statistical)thatissignificanttofisherysustainabilityoverthelong‐term?,2.Whatisabrief(lessthan5sentences)scenariothatsummarizesthemaindevelopmentsthathelpexplainorelucidatethistrendanditsconsequences,3.Whatarethefactorsthatrequireresearchinordertounderstandeachscenarioanditsdynamicsinbetterdetail?Thisquestionnairewassenttoallprojectpartnersfortheirinput.ThispreparatorysurveyandtheOuagadougouworkshopsgeneratedsomefourteenscenarios(seebelowfortitlesandtheAppendixfordetails)thatemergeandextrapolatefromcurrentunderstandingbasedonbiophysicalscienceandthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciences.Theseinitialdraftscenariospostulatefisheryproductivitydeclinesbecauseof:
1.Societalmetabolism,e.g.processingofenergyandmaterialsfordomesticandeconomicreasons,anduseofshorehabitatincreasethesedimentloadinsurfacerunoff(sedimentation)andgraduallyfillreservoirbenthiczones,reducingreservoirvolume,andloweringthequantityandqualityofwaterinthewatercolumnandaquatichabitatsusedbyfishandotherfaunaforfood,shelterandreproduction.2.Overfishing,especiallyoflarge,matureadultfish,reducesaverageadultfishsize,and,hencetheaveragefecundityofadultfish,therebyreducingproductionoffisheggs,larvae,fryandjuveniles.3.Fishcommunitymetabolismandreproductiondeclinebecauseaveragefisheryhabitatsaredegradedbymining,deforestation,sedimentation,andriverbankdevelopment.4.Excessiveinputsofartificialfertilizersmaystimulatetheproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.CeratophyllumsubmersumintheBourareservoir),therebyphysicallyblockingboatsandnetsandreducingthecatchabilityoffish(amongotherproblems).
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5.Pesticidesbio‐accumulateinfishpopulationsanddegradeaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodwebandtrophiccascades)andthereproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesremainunknown.6.Anthropogenicpressures(societalmetabolismandshorelinehabitatuse)increasetheloadingofsurfacewaternutrientinputstoaquaticbiotopes,shiftingthedominanceofphytoplanktoncommunitiestowardcyanobacterialassemblagesthatprevailinreservoirsurfacewatersandreducetheavailabilityofphytoplanktonpalatabletofish.7.Excessivewaterwithdrawals,duetominingamongotheractivities,reducestheavailablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasondeclinebelowthresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason.8.Artificializationofhydrographicnetworks:Cascadesofinfrastructuresalonghydro‐graphicnetworksandtheabsenceofby‐passesforfishdisruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodanddonotallowfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs.9.Reservoirvolumesdeclineduetoinsufficientprotectionandmaintenanceofreservoirinfrastructures(dikes,spillways,...),especiallyifcrocodiles’chambersexcavatedfromdikestherebyweakenthemandmakethemmorevulnerabletohydrologicaldisturbances(excessiveflashflood).10.RisingimportanceofInternationalFishMarketsandFish‐ProductsImportationstoBF.Thelowpricesofimportedfishproductsdonotallowtheexploitationoflocalfishpopulationstobecomeasustainableactivity.Lackofprofitabilitybecauseofmarketcompetitionwithimportedfish‐productsprovestobetoohighahurdlefortheinitialinvestmentsintheinfrastructureandtrainingnecessarytomakeinlandfisheriesamatureindustry.11.Lowfisheriesskillsofnon‐professionalfishermen.Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.Thesestakeholdersarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities–andincome’ssources–infishing(allyearroundorseasonally).Fisheriesactivityisnotpatrimonial(asfarmingcouldbe)andthereisnorealheritabilityofthisskill.12.Insufficient‘Politicalcommitment’todeveloptheruralfisheries‐sectorbecausemostfisheriesresourcesarescatteredamongtoomanyverysmallreservoirs.13.Increasingpopulationsofalienfishspeciescauseindigenousspeciestodecline.Sustainedinvasionandsubsequentreproductivesuccessofalienfishspeciescausestheirresidentpopulationstogrow.Asthealienfishspeciesoutcompeteindigenousspeciesforfoodresources,thelatterpopulationsdecline.
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14.FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaccompaniedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministration.
2.1.1.BiophysicalSciencesOfthefourteeninitialdraftscenarios,onescenarioostensiblyanchoredinbiophysicalsciencerapidlycomestothemindofanyobserveroffisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Inmostmarketsthesizeoflocallycaughtfishisstrikinglysmall,andthereisavastdifferenceinfishsizebetweenfishcaughtinregulatedversusunregulatedaquatichabitats.Adultfishsizecorrelateswitheggproduction,and,ultimately,theproductivityoftheentirefishery.Sincethisrelationshipisnon‐linear,meaningthereisoftenathresholdbelowwhicheggproductionisordersofmagnitudebelowitspotential,thequestionarisesastowhetherthefisheriesinBurkinaFasoarecaughtinatrap,boxedininazoneoflowproductivitybelowthethreshold,andthatitcannotbeescapedwithoutmassiveinterventiontoallowfishpopulationstorecover.ThisisthescenariothatSUSFISHpartnerschosetoexploreinmoredetail,asdescribedbelow.2.1.1.1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:
Fishproductivitydeclinesasaverageadultfishsizedeclines.
2.11.2.KeyWords:Fecundity,Eggproduction,FishSize,
2.1.1.3.Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced:Title:Fisherypolicyrestoresfisheryproductivitybyreversingthedecliningtrendofadultfishsize.
Overthecomingyearsfisherymanagementbecomessustainablefortworeasons:A.fishmanagerscanlowerfishingpressurebycontrollingfishnetmeshsizeandB.becausescientistsdiscoverforeacheconomicfishspecieswhatitsoptimalreproductiveadultsizeis,providingguidelinesforpoliciessettingmeshsizeandmonitoringthetiming,durationandintensityoffishingefforts.Thiscombinationresultsinareinforcingloopinwhicheachfishspeciesbecomesmoreproductiveasaverageadultfishsizeincreasesbeyondthresholdswhereeggproductionincreasesexponentially.
2.1.1.4.Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:HowtoreadandunderstandtheHierarchicalListofCriticalFactors:Thefactorsofconcerntothisscenariohavebeenlistedinahierarchicalorderthatcanbeunderstoodasfollows.ThemostfundamentalfactorsareplacedthefurthesttotheleftintheFirstTier,andasone’seyemovestotherightthedegreeofspecificityincreasesaseachsucceedingfactorinthenextlowertierisdescribed.This“lower”factorsupportsthenexthigherfactorand,ultimately,thefundamentalfactorinthefirsttier.Counter‐intuitively,thehigherthetiernumber,themorespecificandsupportiveitisoffactorsfromtiersoflowernumbers.For
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exampleatthetoporstartoftheHierarchicalList1below,themostfundamentalfactoris“Fishproductionrate”,whichcanbefurtherunderstoodbythesecondtierofsupportingfactors,e.g.EggProductionrate”,“NumberofJuvenileFish”,“NumberofAdultFish”,and“Waterquality.”EachfactorinthesecondtierisfurtherexplainedbymorespecificfactorsintheThirdTier.Therefore,EggproductionrateisfurtherexplainedbyAverageAdultFishSize,EggSurvivalRate,ArrivalRateofMatureFishtoSpawningGrounds,andPatternofReservoirFilling.Thishierarchicalorderingcontinues,includingafourthandafifthtieroffactors.Thehierarchicalorganizationoffersabasisforsystemiccomparisonoffactorsthatinfluencethedynamicsofascenario.Itdoesthisbyshowingthedependenceoffactors,mostdirectlywithineachlinefrommosttoleastfundamentalfactor,butalsoindirectlybysuggestingpotentialrelationsbetweenfactorsacrosslevels,e.g.relationsbetweenallthefactorsinthesecondtier.Thisformofknowledgeelicitationandrecordingestablishedthebasisforamorethoroughandcomprehensivesystemsanalysis,whichwouldexploremorecomplexinteractions,e.g.websofinteractionsandfeedbackloopsthatinvolvefactorsatdifferentlevelsofthehierarchy.TheSUSFISHprojecthasestablishedthatbasisformorecomprehensiveoverviewswiththisinitialsystemoverviewbasedonhierarchicalstructure.HierarchicalList1:CriticalFactorsforBiophysicalScienceScenario
FishproductionrateEggproductionrate(Fecundity),Spawningrate(frayage),
AverageAdultFishSizeEggsurvivalrate
Eggpredationrate,Diseaseincidence,Waterquality
OxygenConcentration,Temperature,pH,Chemicals.ArrivalrateofmaturefishtospawninggroundsPatternofreservoirfilling(1nuitpoorspawningvs.2moisgoodsp.)
FillingrateRainfallpattern(intensity,spatio‐temporalvariation,seasonal)
AvailabilityofHabitatServicesHabitatarea(spatialmosaic),habitatquality
NumberofJuvenileFishRecruitmentRate
NurseryhabitatareaandstructuralcomplexityGrowthratefromfrytojuvenile
PredationpressureDensityofBirds,frogs,fish,
NumberofAdultFishRecruitmentRate
Habitatareaandquality:Growthratefromjuveniletoadult
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AvailabilityoffishfoodFitnessofAdultFish
Preyavailability(macro‐invertebrates,etc.)DiseaseincidenceConditionFactor(Weight‐to‐Lengthratio)WaterQuality(Temperature,pH,Oxygen,Chemicals)
Populationmobility(ratesofimmigrationandemigration(fishnumberarrivingfromoutsidethereservoirorleaving)
Dams(presence,condition),Fishladders(presence,condition)Fishingpracticesinthehydrologicalnetwork
UseofnetsasabarrageacrosstheentireriverFishingusingtoxicchemicals
LengthofdryperiodwithoutwaterinreservoirWaterquality
WaterQualityVariabilityReservoirturnoverrate(Polymyctic–multiplemixing)
Reservoirbasinbathymetry(depth,shape)Seasonalvariationinshapeanddepth
Dry‐downrateasdryseasonprogressesWaterQualityIntensity
ConcentrationofToxins,PesticideandherbicideusebyfarmersHeavyMetalConcentration(Hg,Cyanide)AcidsandSolvents
Oxygenconcentration,Fertilizeruse(typeandintensity),Algalgrowthrate,ProportionofCyanobacteriainthealgalassemblage
TurbiditySedimentationrate,Littoralmacrophytes(area,density)esp.grassesPhytoplanktonproductivity
Fishingpressure(intensityandeffectivenessoffishingefforts),Fishdensity
NumberofAdultFishEffectivenessoffishingpractices
WatervolumeLegalityofFishingMethod(ratiolegal/illegal)FishNets(MeshSize,number,length)Long‐lines(number,intervalbetweenhooks,length)Traps(numberandpositioningontherivercross‐section)DurationofFishingSeason
NumberofFishingMan‐daysAvailabilityoffishingskillsandknowledge
AvailabilityofexpertadviceOrganizationsFishermenAssociations,NGOs,Ministries)LocalCommunity
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Amountofprofessionalfishingexperience(fishingyears)inthelocalcommunity
AverageageoffishermenNumberofold(wise)fishermen
OutmigrationrateoffishermentoOtherfisheriesinBurkinaFasoGoldminesinBurkinaandtheregionDakar,Lagos,Abidjan
EconomicpressureonfishermentofishEconomicpressurefromSocio‐Culturaleventsandceremonies
Eventsthatrequirepayments(weddings,Christmas,etc.)DemandforFish
DomesticfisheconomyRatioofdomesticproductiontoconsumptionrates
FishproductionratesCaptureFisheriesAquaculture
ImportationrateoffishfromoutsideBurkinaFasoFishConsumptionPreferences
AveragequalityoffishconsumedTypesoffishpreferred(size,species,processedornot)
Incomefromterrestrialfarming,Incomefromlivestock,IncomefromAquaculture(shiftsfishermanfromcatchtofishfarming)PriceofProtein,
FishPrice,MeatPrice,RatioFish/MeatpricesCostofLiving
MiningactivitiesimpactonlocaleconomiesEffectivenessofGovernance
EffectivenessofRepublicanGovernanceEffectivenessofGovernmentInstitutions
InternationalPressure(Govt,andNGOs,Banks)Policiesformanagement(administrativecode)
ExistenceAcceptancebypractitionersandresourceusers
AwarenessofpolicyLegitimationthroughparticipation
LegislationExistenceImplementingAgencies(fisheriesdept)
Feedbackbetweenpolicyformulationandimplementation
FishRangers(Foresters),Daysofrangeroversight,Susceptibilityofrangerstobribes(soudoyer–Corruption),
SalaryofRangers,Effectiveoversightofrangers
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BeliefinGovernmentStabilityofGovernmentHierarchy(shiftingandunpredictableMinistryresponsibilities)
EffectivenessofTraditionalAuthority,FaithinTengsoba,FearoftheGods,HolyCrocodilesEffectivenessofFishermenAssociationsPresentornotpresent,Degreeoforganization
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Eggproductionrate,AverageAdultFishSize
Exponentialincreaseineggproductionabovespeciesspecificsizethreshold
Largefishareordersofmagnitudemoreproductivethansmallfish
NumberFish,MigrationRate(fishnumberarrivingfromoutsidethereservoir)Dams(presence,condition),
Somedamsareinpoorconditionandallowfishtomigratearoundthem.
Mostreservoirscompletelydryoutandfisherytotallydependsonmigrationfromtheoutside.
NumberofFishermen,useofchemicalpoisons,FishNetMeshSize,DurationofFishingSeason
Increasingoffishermenreinforcetheuseofillegalfishingmethods
Thedeclineincatchvolume
Fishdensity,Watervolume
Therainingseasonincreaseavailablefoodandfloodplain
Increasingoffishreproductionandfishmigration
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2.2.1Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences
Onescenariorelatedmostlytothenon‐biophysicalsciencesseemedtooccupyacentralpositionthatlinkeditwithmostotherscenariosofBFfisherydevelopment.Thatscenario,describedbelow,examinesthefactorsandrelationshipsthatinhibitcommunicationandtrustingovernancebetweendifferentlevelswithingovernmentaswellasbetweenthoseingovernmentandthoseoutside,e.g.NGOs,business(fishermenandfishmongers),andconcernedcitizens.2.2.1.1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaccompaniedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministration.2.2.1.2.KeyWords:Governance,Scale,NaturalResources,Colonialrule2.2.1.3.ScenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluencedTitle:Multi‐levelGovernancerelatedtonaturalresourcemanagementatthelocallevel
FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministrationthatunfoldedoverthepast130yearsinresponsetoprocessesatdifferentlevels.LocalAdministration(before1885),Colonialadministration(1920–1960),Nationaladministration(1960topresent).TheLocallevelhasexhibiteddecliningeffectivenessoflocalresourcemanagement.Thisdeclineisrevealedbyashiftfromasemi‐effectivelocal‐levelcommunityorganizationtomoreindividualdecisionsoverthepasttwodecades.Modernrepublicangovernancedoesnotworkwellenoughatthelocallevel.Thetraditionalorganizationisinplaceatthelocallevel,e.g.Therearedifferentgroupsinvolvedinmanagingfisheries.However,familytiestothoseintraditionalpowerpositionsincreasinglydeterminewhoassumespowerwithintherepublicangovernancestructure,e.g.Thepresidentofanassociationisthebrotherofthelocalchief.Sothelocalchiefhasincreasinginfluenceovermodernorganization.This“takeover”likeEliteCapturehasacceleratedsincethenationalpolicyofdecentralizationstarted.Partoftheproblemisalsoofrepresentationwithinanyofthelocalorganizations:whomdoesthebrotherofthelocalchiefreallyrepresent,anddoesthatchangehiseffectivenessincontributingtomanagement?Thisambiguitydamagestheprocessoflegitimationofpowerofthelocallevel:whoisthe“owner”oflocalresources?Thistrendofincreasinglyusingfamilytiesratherthanexpertisetodeterminewhogainspowerinmoderngovernancecanlowerthecollectiveexpertiseofgovernance.Italsoconcernsequitywithinthecommunity.Ifyoudonotfeelresponsibletorepresentcertaingroups,thenpower“unnaturally”concentratesonlytocertaingroups(clans,families).Thispowershiftisaccompaniedbyashiftoffinancialresources,becausethepowerfulcanincreasinglydivertfundsforgovernmentprojectstotheirownfamilyfinances.Transparencyalsosufferswhendecisions(financialorgovernance)aremademorewithinfamiliesthaninthe“openair”ofpublicdiscussionforgovernment.Astransparencydeclinesandsuspicionsmountthatthesystemonlyworksforafew(theelitehavecaptured
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thedecentralizationprocess),thenpeoplewillignorethegovernanceprocessandactindividually,hopingnoonewillnoticeortakeaction.
2.2.1.4.Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:HierarchicalList2:CriticalFactorsforSocial,EconomicandPoliticalScienceScenarioRepublicanGovernmentrelatedtowatermanagement
AdministrationPolicy‐Develop,implementandmonitorimplementationandimpacts
NationalSectoralRegionalLocal(reservoirorlake)
StrategyNationalSectoral
LegislationNational
Law(Acts)Ordinances(AssemblyNational)Decrees(President)Arrêtés1(Minister,Mayors)Decisions(Directors)
InternationalConventionsAccords,Pacts
Institutions(organizationalstructure)1GovernanceInstitutionsthatworkatthelocalLevel(evenifbasedathigherlevels)
RepublicanGovernmentCLE(CommittéeLocaldel’Eau)Fishermen’sAssociations
Groupments,GroupmentdespecheursaKongoussi
Union(national,provinciallevel)ForestersAssoc.ofWomenwhoprocessfishComitéduGestionPérimètreHalieutiqued’IntérêtEconomique
9inBurkinaFaso,forallorganizationsinterestedinwaterbutonly3operationalcommitteessofar.
1unarrêtéestunedécisionexécutoireàportéegénéraleouindividuelleémanantd'unouplusieursministres(arrêtéministérielouinterministériel).Translation:aarrêtéisanexecutivedecisionwithbindingconsequencesingeneralorforindividualsthatwasissuedbyoneofmoreministriesofthenationalgovernment’sadministration.
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TraditionalGovernment
Conflictingprocesses:legitimationofpowerandlegality
DamagetolegitimationofpowerwithinrepublicanorganizationsExclusionofmarginalgroups
NetworkAnalysisofpowerrelationswithinthelocalcommunityMembershipwithinrepublicanorganizations
BalancinginterestsbetweenmenandwomenWomenexcludedfrominformationaccess
DonotknowthatitisillegaltobuyfishthataretoosmallPoorcompliancewithrulesofgoverningorganizations
Electionorganization(every2years)Meetings(donotmeetoftenenoughtobeeffective)
CLEisoftentoobigtomakeiteasytoassemble)Noaccountability(nofeedbacktomembers,notransparency)
LackoftrustWhypaywhenIcannotseetheadvantageWhypaywhenthemoneygoestopeopleIdonottrust
Indigenousresistanceto“foreign”ideasGERES–experienceofdominatingforeignadministrationForeignideasdonot“tastegood.”Confusingshiftsbackandforthastowhatisrecommended:
ForeignerstoldthemtocutthetreesatLakeBam,nowtheysayweshouldgrowthem.
Freeriderproblem:whypayforapublicgoodavailablefor“free”Myancestorsdidnothavetopay,whyshouldI?Failuretopaytaxorduesrelatedtofishingormembershipinorganization.
ResistancetomodernrulesthatdepartfromtraditionRefusetoabandonpracticesdeemed“illegal“bymodernrules
UseofforbiddenfishinggearNetswithmeshdimension<35mm
FishingwithoutalicenseSellingfishingrightswithoutauthority
Fishermenpayforrighttotakeallfishinareservoirwhenactuallythesellerhasnoright.
Failuretoenforcethelaw
Forestersarenotactivatedbyaspecific“project”orinitiativethatmandatesthattheygoandmonitorfishermen.Withoutspecificmandates,theyignorethesituation.
Forestersdonotmonitorwhofishes(oreducatepeoplelocally)Malifishermenpaydirectlytolocalcommunity(5Kperfishermanpermonthinadditiontosomefish)as
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opposedto8Kperyeartotherepublicangovernment.(seep156RaymondOuedraogoDissertation)
Forestersinfluencedbytheir“LocalGuides”Forestersnominatedfortheirjobsbasedonexpertise,buttheyoperateincooperationwitha“LocalGuide.”
LGarenominatedlocally.LocalGuidessometimesorganizeresistancethatnullifiesenforcement.
LackofresourcestosupportenforcementFundingTrainingorExpertisePowertoenforcethelaw
NewrulesorlawcannotdisplacethetraditionalrulesInthemindsoflocalresourceusers(fishermen,hunters)
SeeaboveaboutresistancetonewlawsLawsconflictwithTraditionalPractices,e.g.Useoffetishes(Voudou)
LocalpeoplechasedouttheforestersandpolicefromMousoudougouaftertheytriedtofineahunterforcatchingarabbitwithoutalicense,whichactuallywaslegal,sothiswasanabuseofpower.
Inthemindsoftheforester‐Forestersmaynotagreewithnewlaw‐Forestersnotwillingtogoagainstmajorityopinion.‐IftheForesterdoesnotunderstandlocaltraditions,evennon‐verballytheycancommunicatethislackofunderstandingandcreatetensioninthecommunity.Thiscaneasilyoccurwhenforesterscomefromelsewhere.
CommodificationoffishNewtrendfromsubsistencetocommercializationcreatesamomentumthatishardtocounteractbyenforcingthelaw.
Trendrunscountertotraditionalgovernancethatco‐evolvedwithsubsistencefishing,whichwasaminority,ratherthanthemajoritynowthatwilldoanythingtogainmoneyinanexpandingindustry.
Povertyoffishermenobligesthemtofishbyanymeansnecessary.
Populationdynamicsreinforcetheeconomicpressuretogainmoneybyanymeans
Trendexpandstheroleofwomeninfishprocessing.
ConflictbetweenRepublicanlawsandTraditionalruleWhenconfusionexistsbetweenRepublicanandTraditionalrules,thenpeoplewillusuallyresorttotheTraditional.
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LocalconceptionsofNaturalresources(Water,Fish,etc.)Power
Networkofrelationships
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2.3.SystemsAnalysisofBehaviorPatternsCriticaltoSustainabilityWhileprevioussectionsifthisreportactuallydoconstitutesystemsanalysisbydescribingahierarchicalstructureofrelationsbetweencriticalvariables,thereisamplepotentialtoextendthatsystemsanalysisusingothertechniques,suchasconceptualmapping.InsufficientresourcesoftimeandfundingpreventedWP8stafffromworkinglongenough(monthstoyears)withawideenoughcircleofexpertopiniontogeneratedetailedconceptualmapsabettedbysystemsanalysisthatuncoverspreviouslyunappreciatedpatternsofcausation.ThatlevelofeffortwouldhaverequiredworkingwithallSUSFISHpartnersinadditiontosomeoutsideexpertsandkeystakeholderstoelaborateonthebasicsystemsanalysisestablishedthroughscenariodevelopment(Section2.2).However,withthehelpofsystemsmodelingexpert,PiotrMagnuszewksi,fromtheCenterforSystemsSolutions,WP8staffworkedwithseveralSUSFISHresearchpartners,todevelopasystemsanalysisthroughconceptualmappingofseveralscenarios.Theseexercisesservetoillustratethepotentialforconceptualmappingtohelpstakeholdersidentifypotentialcriticalrelationshipsbetweenfactorsthatmighthelpexplainthedynamicsofconcerninatrendand/orscenario.Underthebestofcircumstances,suchexerciseswouldcontinueforaprolongedseriesofmeetingsovermonthstorefinethemapsbyiterativelychallengingandrevisingthemap’shypotheticalstructureusingnewdatafromliterature,expertopinion,orcurrentunpublishedresearchresults.Totrytoillustratethepotentialofconceptualmapping,wemetseveraltimesinSpring2014andconfinedoureffortstotwosetsofscenarios:abiophysicalsciencesetbasedonscenarios1‐4andasocialsciencesetofscenariosbasedonscenarios12and14(seeAppendix).HowtoreadaconceptmapmadewithCmapsoftware:Cmapssoftwareallowsonetogenerateconceptualmapswhereintheconceptsarelinkedbyrelationshipsthatareverballydescribedbyonetomanywords.Thispermitsoneto“read”thegraphicmapasagroupofrelatedsentences.ForbetterclarityinthisReport,inthetextdescribingconceptualmapsconceptsaredenotedinitalicfontwhiletheverbsaredenotedinnormalfont.OneexampleofasentencecanbefoundintheupperrightcornerofFigure1below.SedimentationreducesAreaanddurationoffloodingforfishnurseryhabitats,whichaffectstheFishProductivity,whichaffectsFishPopulationwhichaffectsFishYield.Byusingwordstocomplementthegraphicdepictionofrelations,itisnotonlyeasierandfasterattheoutsettocomprehendtheindividualideasandthecollectiveconceptofthemap,but,ifonereturnstothediagramafteraprolongedperiod,itisalsomucheasiertorelearnthediagramandresumeworkonit.Cmapsiscurrentlyatthefrontierofsoftwaretoprovidesuchgraphictoolstodescribeasetofrelatedhypothesesaboutcollectivecausationincomplexsystems.2.3.1.SystemsanalysisofthebiophysicalsciencessetofscenariosThesuspicionthatdifferentscenariosdonotstandalonebutarerelateddrivesthesearchtoidentifythoserelationships,andFigure1revealsimmediatelyhoweasyitistolinkscenarios1through4.All4scenariosareinvolvedinawebofrelationshipsthataffectFishProductivityandFishYield.Scenario1(Sedimentation)involvesfactorsthatinfluenceFishProductivity,e.g.AmbientWaterTemperatureandAreaanddurationoffloodingforfish
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habitats.Scenario2(FishSize/EggProduction)involvesthehubofrelationsthatinfluencebothproductivityandyield.Scenario3(Fishproductivity/Habitat)positsadirectrelationshipbetweenhabitatqualityandproductivity.Scenario4(Macrophyteproliferation)positsarelationshipbetweenagriculturalfertilizerinputs,macrophytedensityinthelittoralzone,andfishcatchability,whichdirectlyaffectsFishYield.TheconceptualmapinFigure1isagraphicpictureofahypotheticalsetofrelationships.Eachsetofrelationshipspositedundereachscenarioisnotverycomplicatedasgraphed,buttheoverallmapmayappearcomplex,becausemostpeopledocumentcomplexitywiththelengthoflistsoffactorsand/orverbaldescriptionsofrelationshipsbetweenthefactors.Itstillisararechallengeformostpeople,evenscientists,toviewandcomprehendtheconstellationofalltherelationshipsinasystem.Theartofinterpretingtwo‐dimensionalmapsoflinkedhypotheticalrelationshipsisstillrelativelynew.Sufficeittosay,thatwithincreasinginputsofdataovertime,eachscenariocouldeventuallybedescribedbyaconceptualmapthatisfarmorecomplexinstructureorbya“family”setofmapsthatarerelatedorlinkedbycommonvariables.ButFigure1istheproductofabrief,experimentalprobeinmappingbySUSFISHpartnersthataimsforasimplergoal.ItclearlyshowsthatscenariosareverylikelyrelatedandthattherelationshipsandkeycommonvariableshavepotentialtoinformtheresearchagendaoffutureprojectsrelatedtowaterandfishscienceinBurkinaFaso.2.3.2Systemsanalysisofthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciencessetofscenariosResearchbasedonsocial,economicand/orpoliticalscienceinSUSFISHhasgeneratedaconsiderablenumberoflessonslearned(Table2),importantfollow‐upquestions(Table4)andscenariosrichlydetailedwithadauntingnumberofcandidatefactors(HierarchicalList2).Aspreviouslynoted,thehierarchicalstructureofrelationsbetweenkeyfactorsdoesconstitutethefoundationofasystemsanalysisofsocial,economicandpoliticalvariablesthatinfluencefisherysustainability.Butconceptualmappingoffersopportunitiestoextendthatanalysistoexploremorecomplexcausalstructures,e.g.websandfeedbackloops.WP8staffmetseveraltimesinSpring2014underthedirectionofPiotrMagnuszewskitocreateconceptualmapsbasedontwosocialsciencescenarios:12and14(page??).Figure2summarizesthosemodelingeffortsandrevealsanumberofintriguingfeedbackloops,i.e.ringsoffactorsthatarelinkedinacircleofcausation.Thesestructuralpatternsarehypothetical,andtheirvalueliesindefiningreinforcingpatternsofcausationthatarehardtoidentifybecausemostpeoplethinklinearlybutareworthyoffurtherexamination.Onthebroadestlevel,thisexperimentalmodelingsessionpositedaloopasfollows:FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaddstoGovernanceChallengesthatundermineourCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Figure1–ConceptMapofKeyBiophysicalProcessesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF
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Severalminorloopsworkwithinthisbroaderloop.GovernanceChallenges,whichareexaminedinmoredetailbelow(seeFigure3),leadtoCommunicationfailureaboutthelegalsystemwhichreduceCompliancewithlawswhichhinderourCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Furthermore,GovernanceChallengescanleadtoEliteCaptureofparticipatorybottomupprocesses,whichleadstomoreInequalityinpowersharing,whichunderminesTrust,and,hence,CompliancewithlawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.GovernanceChallengescanleadtoDiminishingpowerandavailabilityofrolesandstrategiesforwomenandpoorwhichleadstomoreInequality,lowersTrust,Compliance,therebyincreasingFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Finally,thisfailureitselfunderminesTrust,leadingtolowerComplianceandmoreFailure.Insummary,Failureofnaturalresourcemanagement,whichconsistsofwaterpollution,overfishing,wateroverconsumption,anderosionleadingtosedimentation,canbeanalyzednotasoneorseveralsinglechainsofcausesbutasasetofloopsthatreinforceandaugment
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Figure2–ConceptMapofKeySocialProcessesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF
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eachother.Theoperationoftheseloopscanunderminesustainability,butthatoperationpotentiallycanbeslowedorhaltedbyseveralhypotheticalinterventions,whicharedepictedasgreenboxesinFigure2.FollowingtheexamplesinFigure2,CapacitybuildingprogramsandknowledgesharingcanimproveEducation,knowledgeofresourcemanagementgroundedinthelocalcontext,therebyhelpingwithbothCompliancewithlawsandEnforcementCapacity.Participationoflocalcommunitiesindecision‐makingandimplementationcanincreaseTrust,andWomen’sEducationcanaddresstheDiminishingpowerandavailabilityofrolesandstrategiesforwomenandpoor.SustainabilityVisioningcanaddressandabetallthreeoftheseloopprocesses.Someofthe“variables”orconceptsshowninFigure2actuallyaretitlesthatrepresentaclusterofrelationshipsthemselves.TheseareFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement,Capacitytoimplement(enforce)laws,andGovernanceChallenges.Wenowdescribetheconceptsandrelationshipsunderlyingthelattertwoconceptsasdepictedwhentheir“box”framesareexpandedtorevealtheinnerstructureinFigures3and4.SeveralofthecurrentchallengestoefficientgovernanceatmultiplelevelsinBurkinaFasohavebeenpreviouslydescribedinSections1.2and2.2,e.g.LessonsLearnedandinImportantRemainingQuestionsinsocial,economicandpoliticalsciences.Someoftheconceptsandinterrelationsunderlyingtwoofthesechallenges,e.g.InstitutionalNomadismandDecentralization,arerevealedinFigure3.InstitutionalNomadismemergeswhenCompetitionbetweenministriesforcontrolofPolicyandBudgetsresultsinLackofcontinuityinorganizationalstructure,whichisreflectedinFrequencyofresponsibilityshiftsbetweenministriesandinChangesinpersonnelassignmentswithinministriesandagencies.ThelatterisprofoundlyinfluencedbyNepotism.ThesecausalrelationsaffectBudgetaryuncertainty,e.g.unpredictabilityoffinancialavailabilityforthosecreateand/orimplementpolicyaswellasUncertaintyaboutmeaningofinstitutions(laws,strategies,etc.)forbothgovernmentandnon‐governmentalactorsinfisheries.TheothergovernancechallengeshowninFigure3hastodowithDecentralizationandhowtoestablishgovernancethatfunctionswithinandacrossmultiplelevels.Decentralizationisachallengewithinitselfinthatitappearstoexistmoreonpaperthaninreality.SinceheretoforeitwasostensiblysimplertomanageentirelyfromthenationalcenterinOuagadougoufollowingtheFrenchcolonialmodel,DecentralizationimmediatelyappearstobeachallengingadditiontoComplexitybyaddingNewGovernancestructure(newpositions,oftenfromoutside)ofthesocialcirclesinthecapital.ThisisexemplifiedinthenewLocalWaterCommittees,e.g.lesCLEEsorCommitteeLocaldeL’Eau.Thecomplexitybecomesapparentinthatthesecommitteesdonothaveenoughresourcestoworkeffectivelynordotheypossessactualpowertobetterunderstandresourcechallengesandmakedifficultdecisionsthatareenforced.Assuchtheyappearmoreasa“goodidea”poorlyconceivedorimproperlyimplementedthatsimplyaddtofrustrationandlackoftrustingovernancesolongasthesecommitteesstandidlewithoutevenenoughmoneytomeetregularly.Figure3–ConceptMapofGovernanceChallengesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF
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TwootherchallengesarelistedbutnotstructurallyelaboratedinFigure3:Resistancetomodernrulesthatdepartfromtraditionand“Neo‐colonial”Agenda.Theformercomplicateseffortstoformulateandimplement“modern”,e.g.republican,lawsatthelocallevel,andcouldexplaintheresurgenceinrelianceintraditionalinstitutionsmentionedpreviously.ThelatterreflectsthetensioncreatedbyhowcultureandeconomyinBurkinaFasoappearinparttobeprofoundlyaffectedbyeventsoccurringoutsidethecountry.ThatpartofcurrentBurkinabeculturethatisembodiedinwhatnormsareestablishedandreifiedastowhatismodernandprogressive,certainlyseemsinfluencedbytheinternational“knowledge”economiesthatcreateandrunoncomputersandsmartphones.Furthermore,BurkinaFaso’seconomyisprofoundlyinfluencedbytheactivitiesofworldmarketsaswellasgovernmentandNGOdonors.Justintheareaoffishconsumptionalone,eightypercent80%oftherisingdemandforfishismetbyinternationalsources.Howcangovernancereacheffectivelytolocallevelswhensomuchattentionisdirectedacrossthenationalborderstointernationalsourcesofideasandeconomicresources?SomeoftheconceptsandtheirinterrelationsthatchallengethecreationandsustainingoftheCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawsaredepictedinFigure4.ThefirstisthechallengeofcreatingaGoodfitbetweeninstitutions(laws,rules)andorganizationalstructures(responsibilities).Tofitlawstotheirrespectiveresponsibilitiesimpliesthatthelanguageofthelawrequiresactionsthatcanreasonablybeexpectedfromtheactors,within
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governmentandwithout,andtheirrespectiveorganizations,thatareresponsiblebythelawtoperformthoseactions.Agooddegreeoffitisneededforfunctioninggovernancetobridgefromnationaltolocallevels,andthisinturnprovidesbothOversightatthelocallevelandtheLegitimationofpowerateachlevelofgovernance.Suchofficiallylegislatedmulti‐levelgovernancecanalsobecomplementedbyInformalinstitutionsintheenforcementoflaws.HowtheycomplementofficialinstitutionsandorganizationalstructuresiscomplicatedbythefactthatInformalinstitutionsarecreatedbybothPeoplelivingthereaswellasOutsideorganizations.ThelattermaynotknowwelltheLocalContext,asisthecasewithinternationalorganizations,bothintheprivateandpublicsectors.Inthatcase,theformalandinformalinstitutionsthattheyoperatebymaynotfitwellwithlocallysensitiveinstitutionsandorganizationalstructures.Suchpoorfitwasclearlyinevidencebefore1960whenFrenchcolonialagriculturalpolicytriedtoimposeEuropeandefinitionsofmodernpracticeonrowcropfarming,resultinginwidespreaddeforestationintheSahel.Figure4–ConceptMapofFactorsrelatedtothecapacitytoenforcelawsaffectingfisherysustainabilityinBurkinaFaso.
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3.DiscussionBasedonresearchinthebiophysicalandsocial,economicandpoliticalsciences,theSUSFISHprojecthasestablishedafoundationofknowledgeusefultoassessandactualizethepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.TheSUSFISHprojectwasfoundedbynaturalscientiststoexplorethepossibilitytoanalyzeandthenmanagefisheriessustainablybasedonrigorousbiophysicalscience.However,thelonghistoryoftechnicallysoundnaturalscienceprojectsthatutterlyfailedinthelongrunduetosocial,economicand/orpoliticalreasonspromptedthemostprominentinnovationinSUSFISH:researchintothenon‐biophysicalfactorsthatmighthelporhinderthesustainabilityoffisheriesinBF.Theresearchfocuswasfurtherexpandedtolookforinteractionsbothwithinandbetweenbiophysicalandnon‐biophysicalfactorsusingscenariosandsystemsanalysis.SUSFISHresearchsetouttoestablishafactualbasisforsustainablefisheries.Butbasedontherecognitionthatsuchanefforttolookthoroughlyacrossdisciplinescanneverbecomprehensiveinonlyafewyears,SUSFISHprojectresearchwasorientedtoconcludebyidentifyingthemostimportanton‐goingquestionsforfutureresearch.Inthissection,wesummarizethemostprominentfindings(LessonsLearned)andquestionsgeneratedbySUSFISHresearchandconcludewithsomeofthesalientimplicationsofsuchresearchasindicatedfromscenariosandsystemsanalysis.3.1ReviewofmajorfindingsTheSUSFISHprojecthasclearlymetitsoverallgoalofprovidingthesciencebasisformakingfisheriessustainableinBurkinaFaso.Thishasbeenachievedbothintermsofknowledgegeneratedaswellascapacitybuildingtoapplythatknowledge.Capacitybuildinghasbeenachievedthroughprovisionoftools(softwareforanalysisandhardwareforfishmonitoring)aswellastrainingintheuseofthosetools.Thisincludestheuseofdifferentkindsofgeartosamplebothfish(gillnets,electrofishing,etc)andbenthicinvertebratesandtheprotocolsforhandlingandtheanalyzingthesamples,especiallytaxonomicclassification.Italsoincludestheuseofstatisticalsoftwareandmodelingtoanalyzeandidentifysignificanttrendsinthedatasampledinthefield.KnowledgehasbeengeneratedbothintermsofconceptsandfactsaboutBurkinaFasoaquaticecologyandsociety.Thisnewinformationcanserveasafoundationaldatabasethatcaninformtheformulationandimplementationofpolicy,providingbenchmarkdatafromwhichtomeasureprogressandsettargetsperformancelevelsforpolicyandpractice.Forexample,notonlyhasSUSFISHresearchgeneratedthemostcurrentandcomprehensivespecieslistsforBF,ithasidentifiedthesignificanceoftherelativescarcityofsomeofitsspecies:asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaarethreatened.SUSFISHhasestablishedthedatabasistoidentifythemultiplesourcesofthosethreatsandquantifytheirimpactsonaquaticspecies.Broadly,inBurkinaFasothepresence,diversity,trophiclevel,densityandbiomassofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebrategeneraandspeciesrespondnegativelytoarangeofanthropogenicpressures.SuchBIaswellasfishtaxarespondnotonlytothreatsandpressuresbutalsotolandscapeandhabitatparameters.Assuchcertaingeneraandspeciescanbeusefulasbio‐indicatorsof
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waterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchmentsaswellasLandUse‐LandCover(HabitatType)parameters.ItwasalsoestablishedthatdataonBI(abundance,speciesrichness)alsoreflectwaterqualityparameterssuchasconductivity,oxygendemand,ambienttemperatureofthewatercolumn,andproductivityofawaterbody),soaquaticspeciescanbeusedasbio‐monitorsofwaterqualitybothformanagingfisheriesaswellasthesecurityofwatersuppliesforsociety.ThepracticalimplicationsofSUSFISHresearchisthatitprovidesspecificknowledgeaboutthesensitivityofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebratetaxatospecificpressuresand/orclustersofpressuresthatofferthedatabasisformonitoringthepresenceandimpactsofpressures.Overall,SUSFISHsurveysdemonstratethatsuchparametersasfishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitatmanagement.Therefore,bothfisheriesandwatercanbebettermanagedbasedonsciencethatrigorousmonitorsandmanagesmultiplelevels:aquatictaxa,thewatercolumn,habitatqualityandsurroundinglanduses,andthehumanactivitiesthatgeneratepressuresimpactingtheseaquaticandterrestrialhabitats.SUSFISHdataindicatethatfishmanagementmustbeinformedbydataatscaleslargerthanlandscape,sincefishbiodiversityisrelatedtotheirmobilityand,ultimately,towaternetworkconnectivity.Overthelong‐term,thisprojecthasestablishedthatmonitoringsystemsthatweredevelopedbasedondatafromcatchmentsoutsideBFareoflimiteduseformonitoringandmanagingBFcatchments.ThereisaclearmandatetodevelopanewmonitoringsystembasedentirelyondatafromBF.SUSFISHalsohasprovidedanoutlineofdifferentpathwaystodevelopsuchaBF‐specificmonitoringsystem,e.g.athreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecisioncanbeestablished:level1:arapidfieldmethodology;level2:aBioticScore;andlevel3:aMultimetricApproach.Aspreviouslynoted,SUSFISHwasfoundedinrecognitionofthehistoryoffailureofdevelopmentprojectsgroundedonlyontechnicaland/orscientificadvances.InBurkinaFasoaloneSUSFISHresearchfoundexamplesofabandonedequipmentandinfrastructure(fishponds,refrigerators,fish‐weighingscales,fishshops)tosupportthemodernizationoffisheriesthattestifytothis.Forthatreason,SUSFISHsponsoredresearchintothesocial,economicandpoliticalbarriersandbridgestosustainablefisheries.Ourresearchindicatesthatwhilesomeencouragingexamplesexist,thereareabundantbarrierstosustainablefisheriesprovidedbychallengesofgovernanceatmultiplelevelsinBurkinaFaso.AprominentoverarchingchallengeisthatitappearsthatfisheriesmanagementisnotequallyappliedalloverBurkinaFasobutisconcentratedinafewlargereservoirsof“nationaleconomicinterest”,e.g.Ziga,Bagre,Kompienga,andSourou.Outsideofthesemajorreservoirsdominatedbycommercialfishermenwhoareregulatedandingoodcommunicationwithgovernmentofficers,communicationisnotsogoodformanagementorgansdevotedtosmallerreservoirs,exceptforfourfishingconcessionsgiventotheassociationsofthelocalfishermen(Bapla,Moussodougou,Tandjari,Lera).Asidefromthesefewexamplesofsuccessfulorganizationoflocalmanagementcapacity,forthemostparttherearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.Briefly,agovernance
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systemthateffectivelyfunctionsfromthecentral,nationallevelouttotheregionalandlocallevelshasyettobeestablished.Oftenthelinkbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesismissing(lawisnotadoptedtopractice).Thereforethereislittleeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.Whileeffortstodecentralizemanagementauthorityhavebeenunderwayforyears,thefailuretocomprehensivelybridgeinstitutionsfromnationaltolocallevelsishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel(AdministrativeFlux).Onesalientexampleofsuchpoorcommunicationisthegenerallackofexpertisethatisregionallyorlocallyavailableforconsultation.Asaresult,progressinimprovingfishingmethodsisblockedbylackofcapacitytolearnortoorganize.Inthefaceofsuchpoorinter‐levelcommunicationandsporadicorabsentmonitoringtheuseofillegalequipmentandfishingpracticesonlymounts.Itishardtoimaginehowtrustingovernancecanbebuilttostrengthencompliancewithlawsandpoliciesundersuchconditions,andevidenceofthiserodingtrustisthatinsomeareaslocalfishermenhaveswungtheirallegiancefromrepublicantotraditionalauthorities.Traditionalauthoritiesstillconstitutelegitimatelocalsourcesofgovernance.Traditionalinstitutionsplayavitalroleinreaffirmingtheidentityofcommunitiesreliantonaquaticecosystemsandtherebybroadlyinfluencewaterandfishmanagement.However,thecurrentgovernancestructurehasfailedtolinkandharmonizerepublicanandtraditionalsources.Andeffortstodecentralizehavebeenpoorlyimplemented,e.g.localmanagementcommitteeslackthefundingtoevenmeetregularly,orhavebeentakenoverbyspecialeconomicorpoliticalinterests,e.g.elitecapture.Thegovernmentalbodiesresponsibleforthefisheriessectorwereunawareofwomen’sspecificroleinthefisheriesmanagement.Consequentlytheydidnotconsiderthemenoughascrucialactorsintheirstrategicandpoliticalprogrammes.SUSFISH’ssociologicalresearchonfishasimportantincomegeneratingresourceshedlightonwomenasimportantpreservingstakeholders(e.g.systemerhaltendeFunktion)intheeconomic,nutritionandhealthdomains.Interdiscplinaryworkrevealedimportantcross‐sectoralactivities,interrelatedpowerrelationsandhinderingfactorsthatplaykeyrolesinthevaluechainissueoftheresourcefishinBurkinaFaso.However,notwithstandingtheirimportanteconomicrole,sincewomenareexcludedfromdecision‐makingprocessesonlocallevels,thefocusoffutureanalysisshouldbeorientedtowardstheimpedingfactorsemergingfromincompleteormisguidededucation,structuresofassociationsandpowerasymmetries.Thesefindingsresultedinthedraftofastrategyfortheintegrationoftheseaspectsinthefisheriesmanagementpolicies,whichwasdevelopedinSUSFISH.OnepillarorcoreelementofSUSFISHresearchwastoestablishorintensifycooperationamongpartnerswithintheproject(nationallyinBurkinaFasoandinAustriaaswellasinternationallybetweeninstitutionsofbothinvolvedcountries).Someofthemneededcapacity‐buildingmeasurestofostercooperationacrossdisciplinaryandinstitutionalboundaries.ThereforeSUSFISHdevelopedasetofcooperation‐promotingactivities,suchasjointinterdisciplinaryfieldtrips,cross‐disciplinaryworkshops,jointlectures,shared
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supervisingmodelsforstudents(crossinstitutionally),systemanalysisandconceptmodelling.AsecondpillarofSUSFISHappliedresearchwasnetworkingwithnewpartnersnationallyaswellasinternationally.ForinstancearegionalnetworkofresearchinstitutionsonfisheriesandaquaticecologycouldbeinitiatedthroughtheintensificationofexchangeanddisseminationactivitiesbetweenBenin,Côted’IvoireandBurkinaFaso.Bothpillarscontributedsignificantlytothepromotionofinstitutionalcapacitiesofsocio‐politicalecologyinthehighereducationsystemofBurkinaFaso.WiththeconclusionofSUSFISHitisobviousthatfurthereffortswillbecrucialforasustainablecontinuationofthechangesmadeinthissector.3.2ReviewoftheImplicationsofSUSFISHresearchSUSFISHpartnersusedthreemeanstoexaminetheimplicationsoftheproject’sfindings:elucidatingprominentremainingquestions,developingscenariosthatelaboratedifferentdevelopmentpathsofaquaticbiotopesinthefuture,andsystemsanalysisofhypotheticalrelationshipsbetweenfactorsthatinfluenceimportanttrendsandscenariosidentifiedbySUSFISHresearch.Wesummarizekeyfindingsinallthreeareasbelow.ManyofthequestionsoutstandinginthebiophysicalsciencesemergefromconcernsabouthowtoextendSUSFISHtobettersampleandclassifyaquatictaxaaspartofassessingtheimpactsofmorethanonethreatatatime.Forexample,howtoassesstheeffectsofcomplexclustersoffactorsonaquatictaxa,e.g.Thoseinvolvedinrivernetworkconnectivity,ordamsizeandriverdynamics.Theanswerstosuchquestionscouldthenbeusedtodeveloptheprotocolstoestablishbio‐monitoringsystemsbasedsolelyonBFaquatictaxa,e.g.fishandbenthicinvertebrates.However,ourfindingsofhowseverelyreducedinsizeandabundancelocalfishareinlocalmarketssuggestthatlocalaquaticbiotopesandtheirresidentfishcommunitiesaresoseverelyimpactedthattheycannotberapidlyorcompletelyrestoredunderthecurrentgovernanceregime.Therefore,questionsariseastowhatartificialmethodscanboostfisheryproductivity;whataretheiradvantagesanddisadvantages,andhowcanweimproveandapplytheminBurkinaFaso?Questionsoutstandinginthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciencesarepartlycenteredonhowtoimprovefutureresearchmethodologically,e.g.howcommunicationisinfluencedbylanguageoristheconceptofsustainabilityconcepttoovaguetobeusefulinco‐creatingknowledgewithlocalstakeholdersinthefuture?However,mostofthequestionsfocusonhowtoextendandtestourpreliminaryfindingstobetterdescribeandquantifyvariousgovernancechallengesandhowtheyimpactfisheries.Forexample,howseverelydotheunpredictableshiftsinnationalresponsibilitiestoformulateandadministerpolicyimpactthecommunicationaboutandimplementationofpoliciestomanagefisheries,aquaticbiotopesandsurroundinghabitats?Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruption,effortstoimprovelinksbetweennationalandlocalgovernancelevels,andeffortstoharmonizerepublicanandtraditionalgovernanceinstitutions?Finally,atmorelocallevels,whatmethodsareneededtoassesshowlocalknowledgeinfluencestheformulationandimplementationoffishingregulationsandwhattypesofparticipatoryprocessesmightenhancepolicyandpracticeinfisheriesmanagement?
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SUSFISHappliedparticipatoryresearchmethodstodevelopscenariosaswaysforexpertsandpartnerstoexaminethedynamicimplicationsofthefactsandquestionsgeneratedbytheproject.Howmighteventsunfoldunderdifferentsetsofconditions?Forexamplewhatarethemediumtolonger‐termconsequencesofaccumulationsofpesticides,sediment,agriculturalfertilizers,orinvasivespeciesonthequantityandqualityoflittoraloraquatichabitat,watercolumnortheresidentaquatictaxa?Whataretheconsequencesifaquaticcommunitiesbecome“trapped”inanewregimewheretoxicphytoplanktonaredominantorwherefishadultbodysizeisirreversiblyreduced,cappinganyefforttoincreasefisheryproductivity?Suchexercisesdidnottestorverifyanyparticularsystemtrajectory,buttheyallowedparticipantstoreconsidertheirassumptionsandquestionsinlightofthedynamicsthattheyanticipated,anditfurtherallowedelaborationofwhatparticularvariablesandparametersoughttobemeasuredtobetterunderstandhowthesystemischanging.Assuch,theseexercisescaninformfutureresearchagendas.Finally,theSUSFISHprojectusedconceptualmappingexercisestoexaminethepossiblestructuresofrelationsthatmightunderliethedynamicshypothesizedinseveralscenarios.Theseexercisesextendedanalysisofthesystemfromahierarchicalsetofrelationshipspositedunderthescenarios,tomorecomplexpatternsofrelationships:websandfeedbackloops.Theeffortstomaptheseconceptsandtheirrelationsdidnotverifyanyparticularsetofconceptsorpatternofrelations,buttheyidentifyhowsomepartnersimaginetheyarerelatedandproposetoanalyzetheminthefuture.Mappingofbiophysicalfactorsrelatedtoseveralfisheryscenariosshowedtheydonot“standalone”butarelinkedinawebofrelationshipsthataffectFishProductivityandFishYield.Mappingofnon‐biophysicalfactorsassociatedwithseveralscenariosrevealedthecentralroletrustplaysinanestedsetofrelatedfeedbackloopsthatinfluenceGovernanceChallenges,ourCapacitytoenforcelawsandFailureatnaturalresourcemanagement.ThissuggestthepossibilitythatFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement,whichconsistsofwaterpollution,overfishing,wateroverconsumption,anderosionleadingtosedimentation,canbeanalyzednotasoneorseveralsinglechainsofcausesbutasasetofloopsthatreinforceandaugmenteachother.
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4.ConclusionsTheSUSFISHprojecthasclearlymetitsoverallgoalofprovidingthesciencebasisformakingfisheriessustainableinBurkinaFaso.Thishasbeenachievedbothintermsofknowledgegeneratedaswellascapacitybuildingtoapplythatknowledge.Capacitybuildinghasbeenachievedthroughprovisionoftools(softwareforanalysisandhardwareforfishmonitoring)aswellastrainingintheuseofthosetools.Furtherachievementsweremadebyintegratingthesenewtrainingelementsinthecurriculumdevelopmentforappliedecology.KnowledgehasbeengeneratedbothintermsofconceptsandfactsaboutBurkinaFasoaquaticecologyandsociety.Thisnewinformationcanserveasafoundationaldatabasethatcaninformtheformulationandimplementationofpolicy,providingbenchmarkdatafromwhichtomeasureprogressandsettargetsperformancelevelsforpolicyandpractice.ThepracticalimplicationsofSUSFISHresearchisthatitprovidesspecificknowledgeaboutthesensitivityofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebratetaxatospecificpressuresand/orclustersofpressuresthatofferthedatabasisformonitoringthepresenceandimpactsofpressures.However,despiteanthropogenicpressuresfishpresenceanddiversityremainshigherifhydrologicalconnectivityoftheregionalsurfacewaternetworkismaintained,allowingfishmigrationtoreplenishlocalpopulationdeclines.Overall,SUSFISHsurveysdemonstratethatsuchparametersasfishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitatmanagement.Therefore,bothfisheriesandwatercanbebettermanagedbasedonsciencethatrigorouslymonitorsandmanagesmultiplelevels:aquatictaxa,thewatercolumn,habitatqualityandsurroundinglanduses,andthehumanactivitiesthatgeneratepressuresimpactingtheseaquaticandterrestrialhabitats.SUSFISHalsoproducedreliableinformationthatwillbeusedtoimprovethegovernanceofwaterandfish.Forexample,thelistoffishspeciesisalegalandtechnicalrequirementthatwasneverfulfilled:SUSFISHproposedalistofspecies.ThedevelopmentoftheRedlistoffishforBFwillgiveinsightfordiversityconservation,notonlyforfishbutalsoforothertaxasuchasbenthicmacro‐invertebrates.Overall,asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaisthreatened.AmajorchallengeisthatgovernanceisnotuniformlyenforcedinBF.Becauseofmultiplekindsoflegalandadministrativestatusesforfisheriesaccordingtoreservoirtype(largeorsmallscale),therearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.Thisgapmaylessenifconsiderationoflocalcommunities’opinioninfisherieswillbeimprovedintheprocessofdecentralisationthatstarted1.5decadesago.However,moremustbedonetointegratetheformulationandenforcementofpolicy.Creationandenforcementoffisheriespolicyishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel(AdministrativeFlux).Linkagesbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesaremissingatvariouslevelssuchthatlawisnotadoptedinpractice.Thereforeeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesisscarceatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.SUSFISHprovidedacomprehensivereportongovernanceinthefisheriessector,whichwassharedwithpractitionersinordertolinkscientificresultswithadministrativeexperience.Intermsofintegratingbetterawarenessofsocialtrendsinfisheriesresearchandpolicy,atthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedmoreduetooutside
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pressure,e.g.fromdevelopmentpolicy,thanfrominternalevolution.Thisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,asitisdistantfrompeoples’livelihoodsandleadsoftentomisunderstandings.SUSFISHresearchcontributedsignificantlytoshedlightontheroleandstatusofwomeninthecomplexsocialandpoliticalstructureoffisheriesmanagementinBurkinaFaso.Thesefindingscouldbeintegratedinpolicyformulationatministeriallevelandthusfosteramoreappliedapproachtowardsgenderequality.Intermsofeducationandresearch,SUSFISHdevelopedastrongpartnershipatnationalaswellasoninternationallevel.Thestrengthisbasedon(1)interdisciplinarycollaborationandexchange,(2)developmentofinnovativeresearchmethods(3)developmentofnewcurriculaelementstopromoteresearchinpractice(4)teamwork(5)jointdisseminationactivities.SignificanteffortwasmadetodiminishexistingasymmetriesamonghighereducationsystemsinglobalNorth‐South‐relations,butwashinderedbystructuraldeficits.Forinstanceinstrumentssuchasscholarshipsforstudentsfromdevelopingcountriesareveryuseful.Butthepotentialforthepromotionofyoungscientistsisrestrictedbythefollowingfactors:(1)goodresearchisdiminishedwhenselectioncriteriaareappliedbasedondevelopmentprioritiesratherthanacademicpriorities.(2)Tosucceedasresearcherstosupportnationalpolicyformulationandinaninternationalmarketforscience,graduatestudentsfromBurkinaFasoneedadditionalskillsinscientificpracticetodefineresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryoutresearchprojects.(3)Tothatend,muchmoretimeisneededtofullydevelopthepotentialofsupervisor‐studentrelationsaspartofteamworkmaturing,andchangesneedtobemadeinBurkinabecurriculaatthelevelsofsecondaryschoolanduniversity.SUSFISHcooperationenabledsomesignificantinitialexperiencesinthisdirection.Butstructuralchangesintheeducationsystemareneededmoregenerally:appliedsciencetrainingshouldbegivenincreasingprioritytofosterintegrationoftheoryandpracticeandpreparestudentswithpotentialtodoscientificresearchatthegraduatelevel.
Intermsoffuturecooperationbasedonimprovednetworksofappliedscientists,thememorandumofunderstandingsignedbetweenOuagadougouUniversityandBOKU‐Universityisanimportantasset.MoreovertheequipmentpurchasedbySUSFISHwillstillbeusedbytheBurkinabeinstitutions.Studentexchangesandjointsupervisionofstudentsamongtheinvolvedhighereducationinstitutionswillfosterfuturecooperationandresearchnetworks.SUSFISHresultsoftheinterdisciplinarystudiesonfoodsecurityandnutritionwereusedtodeveloptrainingmanualsontheuseoffishindietforpractitioners.Alltheseadvancesinconcepts,data,skillsacquisitionandequipmentcanserveasasolidfoundationforthere‐establishingsustainablegovernanceoffisheriesandaquaticecosystemsasapost‐revolutionarygovernmenttakesshapeinthecomingyears.
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5.Appendix:ScenariosofFutureDevelopmentsofBurkinaFasofisheriesContentsScenario1:SedimentationScenario2:FishProductivityandQualityofAverageHabitatScenario3:MacrophytePoliferationScenario4:PesticideCocktailScenario5:CyanobacteriaScenario6:DrySeasonWaterAvailabilityScenario7:HydrographNetworksScenario8:InfrastructureDecayScenario9:InternationalFoodMarketsScenario10:Agro‐fishermenScenario11:PoliticalCommitmentScenario12:AlienFishSpecies
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Scenario 1
SEDIMENTATION
1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Sustainedorincreasingerosionratesleadstosedimentarionfillingreservoirbasins.
2. KeyWords:Erosion,Wind,Agriculture,treeloss
3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):
Sedimentationfillsreservoirbasinsreducingavailablewatervolume,therebyreducingthe
areaandthedurationoffloodingoffishnurseryhabitatsandraisingambientwatercolumn
temperatures.
4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:
SoilerosionandoverlandtransportratesSurfacerunoffvolumeandvelocity,WindAverageVelocityandDuration
AridityDesertificationTreedensity
Deforestationrates,Agriculturalcultivationtechnologiesandapplicationintensities
TreeplantingratesEffectivenessofSurfacesoiltransportbarriers
StonebundbuildingandmaintenanceratesMonsoonlengthandintensityLivestockimpactonsoilstructure
LivestockgrazingratesanddurationSoilDynamicsinReservoirbenthos
RateofsoilthroughputthroughreservoirRateofsoilinflow,RateofsoiloutflowRateofsoilremoval
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Deforestationrates,windspeed,soilerosionrates
Reinforcingfeedbackloop
Erosionratessustainedorincreaseastreecoverdeclines
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6.KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:
‐ThishypothesisiscontroversialandonlypartlysupportedbyfieldmeasurementsinBurkinaFaso(citation).
Scenario 2:
Fishproductivitydeclinesasaveragehabitataffected
1. KeyWords:
2. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):
Fisherymanagementbecomessustainableasfishmanagerscanlowerhabitatdegradation
whichareusefulforfishreproductionandfishfeeding.
3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Physicalhabitatalteration
Sandandgravelmining‐Modificationofspawning‐Destructionoffisheggsandlarvae
DeforestationofaquaticplantDestructionofplantsbyFlood,grazing
‐Destructionnursery‐Destructionoffishhidingplace‐Reductionoffood
RiverbankdevelopmentModificationforagricultureandvegetablefarming
‐Modificationandreductionoffloodplain‐Reductionofavailablefood
Roadsdevelopmentandbankprotection‐Reductionoffloodplain
SedimentationFromwindandrain
‐Reductionofwatervolume‐Destructionandreductionofbothavailablespawningandnurseryplace
PerturbationduetolivestockwalkingduringpastureanddrinkingperiodChemicalalteration
Eutrophicationbylivingwastewater,sewageindustrialandurbanwastewaterToxicchemicals
heavymetalsfromgoldmining
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pesticides,organiccompound
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
‐Modificationofriverssubstrateandtheirvegetation‐Fishpopulation
Anychangeonriverfeaturehasanimpactonfishpopulation
Probabilityoflossoftheecosystemqualityandbiodiversity
Scenario 3
1. Process or Trend influencing Fishery Sustainability: Macrophyte Proliferations
2. Key Words: Fertilizers, Agricultural Practices, Aquatic Macrophytes
3. Scenario showing how sustainability is influenced (3 sentences or less):
Excessiveinputsofartificialfertilizersmaystimulatetheproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.CeratophyllumsubmersumintheBourareservoir),thenreducingthecatchabilityoffish(amongotherproblems).
4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:
Agriculturalintensification(increasedfluxesofinorganicnutrientscomingfromwatershedand/orupstreaminlandvalleys),stillamplifiedincaseofweakrenewalofwatermassesduringthefloodingperiod(withalimiteddilutionofnutrientstocksinsitu).
5. Relations between factors that influence this scenario:
Factors involved: How they interact: Results
Macrophyte growth, fertilizers uses, transfers from watershed and/or upstream inland valleys.
Stimulation Increase in fertilizers uses may stimulate macrophyte growth.
6. Key Questions or Uncertainties:
“AlternativeStableStatesHypothesis”:potentialshiftsfrommacrophytedominancetowardsphytoplanktondominance(andinverse).Tworesilientstates(foraquaticecosystems)butwithverydifferent(associated)ecosystemservices.
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Scenario 4
Agro‐chemical contamination of lake sediments, water column and tissues of fauna living in and
around the lake.
1. Key Words: Cocktail of pesticides, Agricultural Practices, Watershed state (land use)
2. Scenario showing how sustainability is influenced (3 sentences or less):
Becauseofagriculturalintensificationpesticideusehasbecomebanal,leavingcocktailsofchemicalresidues.Theirimpactsontheaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascades,)andthereproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesremainunknown.Theirpotentialaccumulationwithinfishtissueshastobeexploredbothforfishpopulationsaswellasconsumershealthareinconcern.
3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:
AgriculturalIntensification
CropProductionandWaterUseProductionratesforcommercialfarming(cotton,tomatoes,vegetables)
Regionaldemandforvegetables,esp.tomatoesInternationalandregionaldemandforcotton
ProductionratesforsubsistencefarmingPesticideUse
Best‐management‐practicesinapplicationTimeframeofapplication,Quantity,Quality
WaterUsePopulationdensity,Averagedistancefarmtomarket,Cropproductionrates
LandUsePopulationdensity,growthrate,migrationratesLanduseintensificationofwatersheds
Urbanization,Roadnetworkdevelopment,Miningdevelopment,Reservoirdevelopment
LandrightsRatiooffallowtocultivatedlandsinthewatershedClimateChange(Increasedvariabilityofrainfall,wind,temperature)
PesticideDynamics
MovementfromfarmtothehydrosphereSurfacewaterRunoffRate,PercolationratetoGroundwater,Atmosphericdispersalrate(irrigatedwateraerosols)tolakewaterRecyclingrateofaquaticwatertothefarm(irrigation)
LineardistancefromfarmtolakeChemicaltransmutationofpesticidesbetweenfarmandlake
BiologicalandGeochemicalinteractionsMovementthroughtheaquaticecosystem(bio‐accumulation)
PesticideconcentrationsinWaterColumn,Sediments,
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TissuesofFaunaandFloraPesticidetransferratesbetweendifferentlevelsofthefoodchain
Bio‐amplificationMovementoutoftheaquaticecosystem
Fishcatchrate,Fishconsumptionrate,Transferratefromfishtohumantissues(bone,fat,muscle)Pesticidemovementoutoflake
FlushingrateoutofreservoirduringrainyseasonWaterwithdrawalrateforhumanandanimaluse
IrrigationCottonproductionrate,Cotton‐relatedwaterdemandDomesticuse,
washing,cooking,Animals–domestic(livestock)andwildindustrialuse,mining,roadandbuildingconstruction
EvaporationrateConsiderincreasingimportanceofnon‐linearresponsesasclimaticvariabilityincreases,e.g.afewextremeeventscandominatetheyearlydynamics.
AssessingtheStateoftheSystem(establishingabaselineformonitoring,modeling)
Aquaticecosystemproductivitydisruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascadesReproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesHumanhealthrelatedtowatercontamination
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Pesticidesuses;natureandorigins(harmfulness)ofchemicals;deregulationoffarmingpractices;transfertowatermasses(influenceoflanduseandhydrologyaswell);transferstofishcommunities;impactsonreproductivepathways;flesh
Tobestudied Pesticidesdoclearlythreatenaquaticecosystemswithunknownimpactsonfishpopulationsandfurther,ontheirconsumers(humansasanimals).
6. Key Questions or Uncertainties: Huge and complex scientific task….
ChemicalImpacts(Pesticides,Herbicides,Fungicides)
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Aquaticecosystem(fish)productivityStructureofCommunities
Scenario 5 Cyanobacteriaproliferations
1. KeyWords:Cyanobacteria,waterquality,anthropogenicpressures,watershed,bufferareas
2. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):
IntheNakambébasin,cyanobacterialassemblagesarehugelydominantinthesurfacewatersofmostreservoirs.Theirdominanceseemsassociatedtoincreasedanthropogenicpressuresexertedonwatershed(populationdensities)andimmediatebufferareas(landuse).Cyanobacteriamayconstitutetrophicdead‐end(unpalatableformostspecies).Manyofthemexhibitharmfultoxicitywithpotentialaccumulationalongthefood‐web,includingfishandtheirconsumers
3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Anthropogenicpressuresonwatershedandimmediatevicinityofreservoirs.Cyanobacteriafacilitation.Pelagicfood‐webs..
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Anthropogenicpressures;solidanddissolvedfluxestowardsaquaticecosystems;cyanobacteriafitness
Complexloopinvolvingfluxes(fromthewatershed)andstocks(withaquaticecosystems,includingstoechiometry).
Anthropogenicpressuresmayfacilitatecyanobacteriaproliferations.
Scenario 6
Availablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasondeclinebelow
thresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason.
1. KeyWords:Waterreserves;multipleusescontext;hydrologicaluncertainty
2. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):
Excessivewithdrawalofwaterduringthedryseasonmayconsiderablyreducetheamountofwateravailablewithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseason(foragriculture,miningor
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otherpurposes).Atthattime,futurefishgenerationsareunderthedependencyofthequantity(andquality,seePC‐BP2)ofpotentialgenitorswhosenumberispartlycontrolledbytheavailablewatervolume.Thismayselectspeciesandgloballyimpoverishfishdiversity.Dryspellmayalsobeinvolvedincaseof‘poor’rainyseasons(reducedinflows).
3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Watervolumesattheendofthedryseason
WatervolumeatendofwetseasonRainfallpatterns(duration,intensity)duringwetseason
Waterwithdrawalrates
SurfaceWaterdemandfor(inorderofpriority):Mining,industry,Irrigation,livestock,domesticuseIrrigation
DemandforagriculturalproducefromFrance,FoodPricedifferentialFrance/BurkinaFaso,ExportrateofBFproduce
GroundwaterdemandEvaporationClimaticVariability(rainfallpatternsunpredictable)
FishsurvivalrateduringthedryseasonAvailabilityoffood
CompetitionfromotheraquaticspeciesProductivityoftheecosystem
FishremovalrateFishingPressurePredationpressure
FishReproductiveCapacityNumberoflargeadultfish(stocksoffuturegenitors)
Re‐stockingsuccessrateFishingpressureRe‐colonizationratefromthehydrologicalnetwork
ConnectivityTypesoffishingpractice
Fishinggear(nets,traps)acrossriverNumberofbarragesinthenetworkNumberofFishladders(Passesmigratoires)
AvailabilityofFoodAvailabilityandQualityofHabitats
CompetitionpressuretousehabitatDiversityofpotentialhabitatsforfuturefishgenitors
Littoralmacrophytedensityanddiversity(grasses,shrubs,etc)Waterquality(Oxygen,Chemicals,Temperature)Substratediversity(rocks,mud,detritus,)
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5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Availablewatervolumes;fishgenitors;
Impactsonhabitats(numberanddiversity)andthenonfishassemblages(abundances/diversity).
Insufficientwaterreservesattheendofthedryseasonmayalleviatethereproductivesuccessoffishpopulations(lostofgenitors).
6.KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:Couldbecontrolledbyrestockingofselectedspecies?
Scenario 7
1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Artificialisationofhydrographicnetworks
2. KeyWords:Connectivity;fishmigration;naturalrestockingofreservoirs
3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Fishstocksareunderthedependencyofpermanentwaterresourceswheremostgenitorsare(naturally)living.Upstreammigrationduringthefloodingperiodisthefirstnaturalrestockingpathway.Cascadesofinfrastructuresalongthesamehydrographicnetwork–andtheabsenceofby‐passforfish–disruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodanddonotallowfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs.
RaymondOuedraogoadds:lostcapacitytomigratenegativelyimpactsfishgrowthand
reproduction
4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Cascadesofinfrastructures;fishmigration;naturalrestocking
Scenario 8
1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:a. Destructionofinfrastructures
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2. KeyWords:Infrastructures’preservationandmaintenance
3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):a. Destructionofinfrastructureswilldefactodestroyfisheriespreviouslyassociatedto
thewatermasses…createdbytheinfrastructures…
4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:a. Infrastructuresprotectionandmaintenance.Crocodiles’chambers.Hydrological
disturbances(excessiveflashflood).Dimensionofcurrent(andfuture)infrastructures
(dikes,spillways,…
5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:
Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results
Infrastructure’sstates.Maintenance.Crocodiles.Hydrologicaldisturbances..
CrocodilesdocreateexcavationswithindikesPoormaintenancestimulatedegradation.
Hydrologicaldisturbancesmaydestroypoorlypreservedinfrastructures,andthenassociatedactivities(fisheriesamongmanyotherservices).
Scenario 9
1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:
RisingimportanceofInternationalFishMarketsandFish‐ProductsImportationstoBF
2.KeyWords:Infrastructures’preservationandmaintenance
3.Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Thelowpricesofimportedfishproductsdonotallowtheexploitationoflocalfishpopulationstobecomeasustainableactivity.Lackofprofitabilitybecauseofmarketcompetitionwithimportedfish‐products(tobedeveloped).
Scenario 10
1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Fishermenoragro‐fishermen?
2. KeyWords:Polyactivity;patrimonialisation(patrimonialising?)offisheriesactivities,heritability
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3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.These
stakeholdersarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities–andincome’ssources
–infishing(allyearroundorseasonally).Fisheriesactivityisnotpatrimonial(as
farmingcouldbe)andthereisnorealheritabilityofthisskill….(tobedeveloped).
4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Household’sstrategies;diversification;professionalization;polyactivity
Scenario 11
1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:a. ‘Politicalcommitment’
2. KeyWords:Fisheries‐sectordevelopment;largevssmallreservoirs;centralizationanddecentralization;newactors(Ruralcommunes);tobedeveloped
3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):a. Thelargenumberof(very)smallinfrastructuresisanopportunity.Smallbut
numerousandscattered,fish‐productsextractedfromsmallreservoirsmay
immediatelyimpacttheriverineconsumers.Thesefish‐productsmayhaveahuge
impactonanimportantrural(oftenvulnerable)population.Economicweight
globallyunknown.Tobedeveloped….
4. KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:
Therealimpactofverysmallscalefisheriesontheirimmediateconsumersremainstobethoroughlyassessed(byfieldworksandnotonlybythetrituratingofsecondarydata…tobedeveloped.Howandwhytodevelopefficientlytheexploitationof(very)smallreservoirs?Isthereapoliticalcommitmentforthiskindofinfrastructures?Istherearedundancybetweentheirlocalimportance(butsmallandscattered,poorlydocumented)andthepoliticalrecognizingofthisimportance?Sowhat?(tobedeveloped).
Scenario 12
1. Process or Trend influencing Fishery Sustainability: a. Increasing populations of alien fish species cause indigenous species to decline
2. Scenario showing how sustainability is influenced (3 sentences or less):
Project [56] Final Report Synthesis 2014
80
a. Sustained invasion and subsequent reproductive success of alien fish species causes their
resident populations to grow. As the alien fish species outcompete indigenous species
for food resources, the latter populations decline.