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ANGOC
CSOLandReformMonitoring
AUsersGuideforLandRightsAdvocates*
This users guide is considered a work-in-progress. It is a modest contribution o
ANGOCandLandWatchAsiatoenhancethecapacitiesofCSOstomonitorland
policies and programs and advocate or land rights. We hope that as land reorm
monitoringforCSOsexpands,enhancementswillbemadetothisinitialguide.
PreparedbyCatherineLiamzonandreviewedbyNathanielDonE.Marquez.
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IntroducingtheCSOLandMonitoringInitiative
GettingStarted
IndicatorsorMonitoring
GettingOrganized
AdditionalResources
AnnexA:SuggestedOutlineforCountryLandReormMonitoringReport
AnnexB:PresentingyourResults
AnnexC:LandReormDevelopmentReport/Index
Reerences
Contents
155
158
170
191
201
208
210
215
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ithout eective monitoring, advocacy eorts are impaired.
Civilsocietyorganisationshavelearnedromexperiencethat
tosecure landrightsortheruralpoor,theymustbacktheir
advocacywithsolid,accurateandup-to-datedatagatheredrommonitoring
activities,inordertoinuencepolicies.Storiesfromtheeldenablepeople
todeepentheirunderstandingotheplightothelandless;whentheseare
supplementedwithnumbers,theyspeakstronglyandconvincinglyabout
theurgencyolandreorminAsia.
ManyCSOsworkcloselywithpeopleatthegrassrootslevel.eyhaverst-
handknowledgeandexperience,nottomentionadeepunderstandingo
peoplesissuesandwhatreallygoesoninthecountryside.CSOshaveoen
helpedtheruralandlandlesspoorndtheirvoiceamidstglobaltrends
andcommercialpressures.Still,manyofthemadmitlackingthenecessary
documentation andresearchto inform theiradvocacy.CSOsthemselves
acknowledgetheneedtostrengthentheircapacitiesinundertakingresearch,
includingmonitoring.
But to organize all the monitoring data and to ensure that monitoring
becomes continuous (rather than a one-o activity that ceasesonce the
reporthasbeenwrittenupandprinted)andaregularpartoadvocacyis
anareathatcouldbefurtherimproved.efactremains:CSOscanbringso
muchvalueintolandreormmonitoring.Lookingatthingsthattendtobe
glossedoverbygovernmentsandmultilateralinstitutions,CSOsshow what
needtobemonitored.Teyhighlighttheseofenneglectedyetsalientand
urgenteatures,orinstancelandlessness,landdisputesandevictions.Inthe
process,CSOsprovideandpushforalternativeperspectivesandindicatorsonlandrights.
Inthiscontext,ANGOCandtheLandWatchAsianetworkhavelaunched
a CSOLand ReformMonitoring Initiative.erst fruit this initiative
hasborneisarameworktoguideLandWatchAsiapartnersinparticular
andCSOsingeneral,astheyassumetheresponsibilityofmonitoringland
reormsinseveralAsiancountries.Tisrameworkzoomsinonlandtenure
andaccesstolandandprovidesasystematicwayforCSOstoembarkon
Introducing the CSO Land
ReformMonitoringInitiative
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monitoring,includingcollaboratingintheprocesswithotherstakeholders
suchastheacademe,researchinstitutions,andmedia.Itultimatelyocuses
onoutcomesorresults,butalsoexaminestheinputsandprocessesthatgo
intolandreormmonitoring.Manyquestionspersist:Has the promise o
agrarian reorm and access to land been delivered? Is land reorm moving
in the right direction?Doarmersenjoymoresecurelandtenurenowthanbefore?isCSOmonitoringinitiativestrivestoanswersuchquestions,to
eventuallybearmoreruitintheormolandreormdevelopmentreports
orvariouscountries.
OverviewoftheUsersGuide
Beore you begin
Tisusersguideinyourhandswascrafedtoguidecivilsocietyorganizations
astheyembarkontheuniquelychallengingtaskomonitoringlandreormsintheirrespectivecountries.Simplyput,thisguideisawaythroughwhich
we can ensure a credible Land Reorm Development Report which
ultimately depends on the quality o our data gathering. A common
rameworkandacommonmethodology,whenablyusedbyallocalpoints,
shouldhelpuslookatthesameaspectsonlandreormandsubjecttheseto
athoroughanalysis.Teconclusionswedrawshouldinormourindividual
andcollective(asanAsianregionalnetwork)landadvocaciesandactions
orchange.
Tisusersguideseekstoexplainthecontextothemonitoringinitiative,providing the conceptual ramework, rationale, scope, limitations,
assumptions,andglossary.Tisincludestheestablishmentodenitions
to be consistently used inmonitoring.Also, itprovides inormationon
methodology, including possible data sources and reerences, aswell as
availabletoolsandapproaches.
Experiences and lessons rom documenting the piloting process o the
monitoringrameworkinBangladesh,IndonesiaandthePhilippineshave
substantivelycontributedtotheusersguide.Variousindividualsandgroups
havealsoenrichedthisguide,throughconsultations,regionalworkshops
andpeerreviews:thecollectiveknowledgeotheLandWatchAsianetwork;
ourexpertsDr.AbulBarkatandDr.LaksmiSavitri;DeanRoelRavanera;
Dr.HansMeliczek;Dr.MaridethBravo;AntonioQuizon;AnnalisaMauro;
Dr.PraveenJha;andlastly,membersandpartnersoANGOCandoILC.
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Te lay o the land
Tisusersguideisdividedintoourmainsections.Terstchapter,Getting
Started,givesasimpleintroductiontothemonitoringramework,about
thescope,indicators,andmechanismsformonitoring.CSOsaresureto
encounterchallengestomonitoring;ashortdiscussionisgivenhereonhowtoaddressthese.
TesecondsectiononIndicators for Monitoringconstitutesthehearto
this guidebook.Wehavetried todeconstruct jargon orhighly technical
inormationon the indicators, into simpler and easier terms. Likewise,
wesuggestherearangeotoolsordatagathering,addingsometipsand
commentstohelpyoualongtheway.
Getting Organizedexplainstheadministrativetasksinvolvedinmonitoring,
particularlytheestablishmentoanationalmonitoringteamguidedbyandsupportedby,respectively,asteeringcommitteeandasecretariattoensure
thesmoothowomonitoring.Essentially,weoersuggestionsingoing
aboutwritingupthereport.Italsocontainstheproposedoutlineorwriting
thereportandtipsonpresentingyourresults.
Given the importance o other initiatives, wedevote the last section to
Additional Resources toenhanceandcomplementyourresearch.
AlistoReferencesoccupiesthelastsection,toacknowledgethesources
wedrewrominpreparingthisguide.Tosewhowouldliketolearnmoreaboutthetopicscoveredcanstarthere.
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Whywearehere:ASummaryoftheCSOLandReformMonitoringFramework
smostAsiangovernmentshavelegislationsorexistingprograms
onlandandagrarianreorms,povertyandahighlyskewedland
ownership patternwithin and across countries continue tomar
the region. At the same time, new developments negatively aect the
terrainolandownershipandtenuresuchasincreasingandintensiying
competition or land requiresbrought by investmentson land,whether
romgovernmentsandthecorporatesectorwithinorexternaltoAsia.
ItisthusimportantforCSOstoconstantlyengagenationalgovernmentsin
policydiscussionsandmonitoringdevelopmentsinlandtenureandaccess
toland.Byarticulatingtheconcernsandprovidingevidence-baseddata
onthesituationoffarmersandothervulnerablegroups,CSOsinformand
inuencepolicy.Attheendotheday,anyreormshouldleadtoimproved
qualityolieothesmalloodproducers.
For some countries, essential land reorm programs are non-existent,
therebyraisingthequestion: How can you monitor land reorm i it hasnt
been implemented yet? Te policies may be in place, but they remain
unimplemented.Ourchoiceoindicatorsaswillbediscussedinmore
detailinthenextsectioncanstillbemonitoredthoughnoocialland
reormprogrammaybereallyexistent(asopposedtonominalexistence)
atthistime.
Inaddition,thoughwerecognizethatlandreormmayonlyconnoteland
distribution, while agrarian reorm is broader to include sheries andorestry,supportservices,andstructuralchangeintheaccessandownership
oland,inthismonitoringinitiative,weuselandreormandagrarian
reormindistinctly.
Finally,wehavechosen to ocusmonitoring eortson land tenure and
accessto land.Terameworkassumesthatbystrengtheninglandtenure
andaccess,wewillachieveoodsecurityandreducepoverty.Landlessness,
in contrast, leads to conicts and violence. We recognize how critical
Getting StartedThis section tells you what you need to know the CSO Land Reorm Monitoring ramework. It
provides the monitoring roadmap, establishing the context, scope, indicators, and mechanisms or
monitoring. At the end, we point out the various challenges CSOs ace, and suggest ways to hurdle
these and nd motivation to pursue monitoring.
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landistothelivelihoodsoarmers,indigenouspeoples,andwomen,and
otherland-basedsectors.Landtenuresecurityinvolvesvariousrightsand
entitlements.
o understand more about the context o land reorm monitoring, kindly
reer to the CSO Land Reorm Monitoring Framework in the rst part o this
publication.
Scope Civilsocietyconcernstendtobebroadthatmonitoringentailsextensive
processes.Land reformmonitoring is no exception.However,CSOsare
usuallychallengedwith limitedresourcesandunsuitablemechanismsor
monitoring.Wethusdeneandtargetthescopeandidentiyappropriate
waysforCSOstoundertakemonitoringmorestrategically.
CSOmonitoringencompassesotherland-relatedissues,aswellasbroader
socialissueslikeoodsecurity,poverty,governanceandtheenvironment.Tesearetheissuesthatdeserveoururgentattention,andwillgureinthe
resultsandanalysesothemonitoringinitiative.Butinanutshell,theocus
isontrackingtheimplementationstatusoagrarianreormprograms.
Atwhatleveldowemonitor?Focus on the national level
LandWatchAsiamembersworkatthecommunity,nationalandregional
levels;somearealsoengagedatthegloballevel.Terearememberswhohave
alreadyundertakenandeveninstitutionalizedlandmonitoringactivitiesas
partotheiradvocacywork.
Underlying this Asian CSO land reform monitoring initiative is the
convictionthatmonitoringmattersmostatthenational level.Monitoring
hastoberelevanttonationalprocessesandadaptabletonationalcontexts.
ToughIndiascasemaybeslightlydierent,givenitsenormoussizeand
itsederalsystem,withagrarianreormslegislatedandimplementedatthe
statelevel,thereareprocessesorwhichitisnecessarytolookatthecentral
government.
Tereality inAsia is that contexts vary rom country to country.Teyhavedierenthistories,landpolicies,tenuresystems,landadministration
systems,andexperiencesrelatingtoagrarianreform.Aswell,CSOcapacities
andtheirrelationshipswithgovernmentsandotherinstitutions,alldier
acrosscountries.Intermsodata,availabilityandaccessibilitydivergerom
countrytocountry.
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... But still looking at the regional level
Whilenationalcontextsvary,thereisagreementindesiredoutcomes,or
whattheLandWatchAsiacampaignwantstoachieveintheirrespective
countriesandintheregion:strongerlandtenure,andenhancedaccessto
landorpoorarmers,indigenouspeoples,women,andothermarginalized
groups.Wemaintainthatthereisapremiuminselectingregionalindicatorsthatwillalloworregionalcomparisons.
Landisprimarilyanationalconcern.However,timesarechanging.Te
new wave o agricultural investments taking place in Asia transcends
nationalboundaries.Landdealsareoccurring between governments,or
betweengovernmentsandprivatesector.Evidenceexiststhattheselarge-
scalelandacquisitionsarepredominantlyintra-regional(Anseeuw,Alden
Wily,Cotula,andaylor,2011).Teseinvestmentsshouldbesubjectedto
aregionalanalysis.Furthermore,bytakingonaregionalapproach,CSO
advocatescanspecicallytargetregionalinstitutions,includingtheregionalocesointergovernmentalorganizations,suchas:
AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)
AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)
Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacic
(CIRDAP)
Food andAgriculture Organization of the UnitedNations Regional
OceorAsiaandthePacic(FAO-RAP)
InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment(IFAD)
SouthAsiaAssociationforRegionalCooperation(SAARC)
WorldBank
Teseinstitutionsvaryaccordingtoleveloopennesstothesensitiveissue
ofland.Somearemoreallergictodiscussinglandissues,whileothers
explicitly include land in their policy
agenda.CSOsshouldtakenoteofthis
indeterminingtheiradvocacystrategies.
We emphasize that ultimately, it is the
national ocal point who will decide on
the ocus o the monitoring, including
the choice o indicators and data to be
collected.a
Focusing on OutcomesTe monitoring ramework ollows
certain logic o inputs, processes,
outputs,outcomesandimpacts.able1
attempts to provide a simple guide on
Figure1ConventionalM&ECycle
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thesetypesomonitoringdata,givingexamplesonthekindophenomena
beingassessed.
Indicators areneeded toassess whatwearemonitoring.Simplyput,an
indicatorisasignthatgivesusanideaothestateorlevelosomething
(SeeTable1).Weselectanduseindicatorstomeasureprogresstowardsourgoals,inthiscaseontheimplementation(ornon-implementation)oland
reorminAsia.Weuseproxyorsubstituteindicators.
Wethuschoosetoocusonoutcomeslandtenureandaccesstoland
becauseamongCSOs,theyaremorerelevant.Attheendoftheday,aer
the lawshavebeenpassed, programsimplementedand titlesissuedand
distributed, the questions remain:Are the armers tenure on land more
secure? Do they have greater access to their lands?
Moreimportantly,tenureandaccessarealsoeasilymonitoredbyCSOsas
theyareabletoworkcloselywiththebeneciariesandothercommunities.
Teyhaveestablishedcontacts,systemsandnetworksthatallowthemto
easilygeneratethesedataovertime.able2showsindicatorsthatwebelieve
canbeusedmore or less by CSOs.
Indicator types Phenomenaassessed
Inputs Land laws, agrarian policies and budgets
Processes Formulation and implementation o agrarian reorm policies and programs;
resolution o dated and current land disputes; and verication andormalization o claims over land areas
Outputs Results and accomplishments, such as the number o land titles issued,
property rights restored, and provision o support services
Outcomes Consequencesandpositiveeectsofinputs,processesandoutputse.g.,
theprevalenceoflandconicts
Impacts Ultimate aims like poverty reduction, ood security and sustainability
Table1:Typesofindicatordatarelatedtolandissues
Land Tenure
Land Disputes
Number o people killed (per 100,000 population) Number o people detained (per 100,000 population) Number o people harassed (per 100,000 population) Number o cases received (per 100,000 population) Number o cases investigated (per 100,000 population) Number o cases adjudicated (per 100,000 population) Number o cases o land grabbing Percentage o area o land grabbed Average time in years or dispute resolution
Additional indicators Annual loss o time due to disputes Monetary loss
Table2:CommonRegionalIndicators
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Butasideromoutcomes,wealsosuggestmonitoringinputs,particularly
laws and policies relating to marginalized groups and the budget or
agrarianreform(SeeTable3).
Te next section deals entirely with the indicators above, establishing
denitionsandincludingtoolsandapproachesordatagathering.
Inputs:BudgetsandPolicies
Budget Agrarian reorm budget
Policies Land use policies Womens access to land Policies or marginalized groups (IPs, shers, etc) Policies or guidelines on oreign investment in land
Table3:SuggestedIndicatorsforMonitoringattheNationalLevel
Bo1:Selecting Monitoring Indicators
Indicators or advocacy are popular because they convey a simple and
unequivocalmessagetothepublic.Theprimarygoalofcreatingindicators
or advocacy is to bring other aspects o land into the agenda, such as landconictivityandlandlessness.
But these should be clear, and above all, resonant. The public has to get aquickgrasponwhytheyareimportant.Howdotheseindicatorsrelateto
CSOsadvocacygoals?CSOsshouldreectonwhetherthedataaretruly
relevant and useul or advocacy, or whether there is a lack o t.
- Tim Bending , ILC
ANGOC. (2011). Proceedings o the Regional Workshop on CSO Land Reorm Monitoring in
Asia. 16-17 September 2010. Bangkok, Thailand.
Evictions Number o households evicted/displaced rom arms (per 100,000 population) Number o households becoming totally homeless because o eviction
Access to Land
Ownership
Land ownership distribution by size Gini coecient/bottom-to-top ratio (or analysis)
Tenancy Rights Number o sharecroppers Percentage o sharecroppers with legal documents
Landlessness Number and percentage o landless persons among rural population
Table2contd.
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A National Mechanismfor Land MonitoringWedevelopedthisinitiativewiththeLandWatchAsiacampaigninmind.
LWAmembersareexpectedto leadlandreormmonitoringin theirown
countries.Weproposenationalandregionalmechanismsorlandreorm
monitoring, to help youmanage land reormmonitoring activities andensureparticipationintheprocess.Figure 2showstheprogressionosteps
inournationalmonitoringmechanism.
Notethatthisisonlyonepossibility,andyouarereetoadaptasyouseet
toyourownneedsandcontext:keepthestepsyoundrelevant,skipthose
youdontneed,andcreatenewonestosuityou.
Figure 2. National Monitoring Mechanism
Source: ANGOC. (2011). Proceedings o the CSO Land Reorm Monitoring Regional Workshop, September 2010, Bangkok,
Thailand.
.
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AdoptionoftheMonitoringFramework
Initiate a consultationprocess to adopt themonitoring ramework.You
mayrevisetherameworkaccordingtoyourneeds.Butasmuchaspossible,
pleasetrytobeaithultotheagreedcommonregionalindicators.
EstablishingaNationalSteeringCommitteeandaSecretariatMemberswill establish their respective national steering committees to
provide policy direction and guidance. Steering committees should be
multi-stakeholder and include CSOs and academe; government could
beconsidered depending on the politicaldynamics inyour country. A
secretariatresponsibleorseeingday-to-daymanagementalsobackstops
thesteeringcommittee.
TesectiononGetting Organizedelaboratesonconsiderationsorsetting
upasteeringcommitteeaswellasasecretariat.
ConductofLandReformMonitoring
Tenationalsecretariatundertheguidanceothesteeringcommitteewill
proceedwithlandreormmonitoring.
Data Validation
Collectedinormationwillbevalidatedandtriangulated;datasourcesare
tobecross-checked.
AdvocacyandDisseminationofReports
Reports will be produced annually, and be shared with government,intergovernmentalorganizationsandmedia.Forumsanddialogueswillbe
convenedtodiscussurgentissuesandadvocatepoliciesandprograms.
Dissemination strategies should include blogs and other inormation
technologyplatorms,sothatthereportscanreachawideraudience.
StraightfromthePilots:anApproachtoLandReformMonitoringTeollowingtable(able4)wasproposedduringourregionalworkshop
onCSOlandreformmonitoringinBangkoklastSeptember2010,andis
rootedintheexperiencesothecountriesthathavepilotedthemonitoring
ramework.Notethatitisa slightlyadjustedandexpandedversionothe
proposednationalmechanism ormonitoring, but remains the same in
essentials.Tedetails and the timeramewill prove handyasyou begin
monitoring.
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Overcoming fearsand getting motivatedIn undertaking thismonitoring initiative or the rst time, youmay be
confrontedwithseveralchallenges.Remember,youarenotalone!Hereis
asmatteringochallenges.
Feelingsofinsecurityorinadequacy
Get over it! Feeling that you arenotup to the taskofmonitoring land
tenureandaccesstolandinyourcountryistherstobstacletomonitoring.
Monitoringisnotaterriblycomplicatedendeavor.Inact,thisiswhywe
havelaunchedtheCSOlandreformmonitoringinitiativeintherstplace.
WehavecometogetherasoneLandWatchAsiacampaign,recognizedthe
needormonitoringtoinormandsharpenouradvocacy,andbegunto
work towardsdeveloping a ramework ormonitoring.Tismonitoring
initiativewilldevelopourcapacitiesandtoocusonstrategicareasland
tenure and access to land.Tus, you can undertake simplemonitoring,
whereitmatters.Joinusaswedothistogether.
Step Activity Details Timeframe
1 IdenticationofSteering
Committee members
Setcriteria:
- Experience in land/agrarian reorm monitoring,
research, and/or advocacy- Presence o academe/research institution
10membersatthemostmostmanageable
1 week
2 Convene an inception meeting Purpose:
- Level of on indicators, denition o concepts,data source, methodology
1 week
3 Data gathering - Identiy 1 or 2 ocal persons
-Possiblesources:(Secondarydata)government,
CSOs,internetresearch,academicjournals,media
(Primary data) surveys, interviews, ocus group
discussions-Usebothquantitativeandqualitativedata
3 months (depending
on data sources)
4 Report writing Team efort (3 persons at the most)
- Divide the report into sections
- Assign 1 person as editor/consolidator- Undertake brainstorming as needed
- Identiy challenges/lessons learned
1 month
5 Presentation o drat report toSteeringCommittee
Gather eedback/comments 1 week
6 Revise report as needed Rene report, include ootnotes, list o reerences,
etc.
1 week
7 Report Validation Presentation o report to other stakeholders(farmers,otherCSOs)
1 week
8 Dissemination and advocacy Formal and inormal mechanisms
Table4:ProposedApproachtoLandReformMonitoringattheCountryLevel
Source: ANGOC (2011). Proceedings o the CSO Land Reorm Monitoring Regional Workshop, September 2010, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Overreliance on experts
Anoshootothiseelingoinsecurityorinadequacyisheavyrelianceon
experts and consultants.Wend thatheavydependence onexperts can
bedisempowering.Teseexpertsareofentoobusy,stallingmonitoring.
Somefeelthattheycannotfunctionwithoutexpertsorconsultantstaking
chargeomonitoring.Whatthenshouldbetheroleoexperts?Intheabsenceocapablesta,it
seemspragmatictohireanexperttogetthejobdone.Butremember,we
aremonitoringwithapurpose.Tegoalotheinitiativeistobuildcapacities
andstrengthenouradvocacy,nottocomeupwithimpressiveglossyreports
perse.
We recommendworking together with experts, in a complementation o
expertise. Experts should acilitate learning in your organization and
empower you not emasculate you to improve on your capacities.
Monitoringshouldnotbeleftoonepersonalonesittingonadeskwritingthereport;itisbestdoneinteams.
Fear of evidence-based advocacy
Dontbeafraid!Evidence-basedadvocacyismuchsimplerthanitsounds!
Itmeanssupportingour claims and conclusionsby hard acts that have
undergone some rigor, using a generally acceptable methodology. For
example,interviewingonlytenpeopleinavillageotwothousandisnot
enoughtomakegeneralizations.Iwesurvey,wehavetohavetheappropriate
samplingmethodthatwecanjustiy.Weshouldnotmakesweepingclaims
aboutruralpovertyorlandlessness,usingvaguewordslikemuch.Itismoreconvincingtobespecic.Ratherthansay,InthePhilippines,many
land-relatedcasesarestillpending,itismorehelpultoouradvocacyto
say,InthePhilippines,oragrarianlawimplementationjudicialandquasi-
judicialcases,thereare7,889casesstillpending,asoJune2009.
TisiscertainlynottoundervalueCSOstrengths.Becauseweworkonthe
ground,closetothecommunities,wehavetheadvantageobeingableto
deeplyunderstandeldrealities.Ourstrengthshavebeenthequalitative
dataweproduce,andtheperspectiveswebringintothedebates.Weprovide
casestudiesandrichnarrativesthatallowotherstoseethingsthroughour
perspectives.Wewoulddowelltocontinuedoingthis.Atthesametime,
weneedtogobeyondtheanecdotesandtrytosupplementournarratives
withquantitativedata,whichiswhatmanyoourpolicymakersarelooking
or.
Failingtoseethewoodforthetrees
Sometimes,wemightgettrappedinacomplianceculture.Wesimplywant
totickalltheboxesandndwhateverdatacanconvenientlytintothegiven
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indicatorsevenithedataarepoorandinsignicant,andtheindicators
aremeaninglessinyourcountrycontext.Also,theseindicatorsarelargely
orarmersandagrarianlandsyouwillndthattheyarenotveryuseul
inthecontextoshers,indigenouspeoples,andinothertenuresystems.
Tesewouldrequiretheirownsetoindicators.
Indicators only indicate. I thedataare simplyunavailable, inaccessible,
orirrelevant,donotgatherdataordatassake.Yourgoalsormonitoring
shouldbeclear.Teindicatorswehavegivenareonlysuggestionsbased
onwhatweasanetworkthinkareimportantinmonitoringlandreorms.
WeareprovidingthegeneraldirectionortheLandWatchAsiacampaigns
monitoring; these indicators arenot setin stone.At the end o the day,
decisions should be made at the country level. Indicators should be
appropriate.
Yes,wemighthave ound the databutwhat are the realitiesbehindthedata?AsCSOs,weaddvaluebytryingtogobeyondthegures.Weanalyze
thedata,knowingthatguresmightbemisleading,orarewrong.
Workingwithothers
Working together is easier said than done. Tere are many benets,
especiallyisomeorganizationshavedatathatareuseultous.Working
withotherCSOs,ortheacademe,orevenwithgovernmentcanprovetobe
asignicantlearningexercise.
Working with CSOsHowever,sometimesthereisturngamongCSOswheregroupsmark
theirterritory,andarenotwillingtosharedata,evenitheysharethesame
advocacy.Insomeinstances,CSOsdonotshareforfearthattheywillnot
bedulycreditedfortheirdata.ByinvolvingotherCSOsmoreactively
whetherinthesteeringcommitteeorconsultativeprocesseslikeroundtable
discussions we may be able to get their participation, and they may
increasetheirownershiporstakeintheprocess.
Government data are accessible
Some governments are unwilling to share informationor even listen to
CSOswhomtheysuspectwillcriticizethem.Landisanespeciallysensitive
issue.OtherNGOshaveoundthathavingachampioningovernment
helpseasedatacollection.Still,forothers,workingwithgovernmentis
stillnotpossible,andwemustndeitherotherdatasources,orpartner
withgroupsthatcanaccessdata.
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Being too ambitious
Sometimeswemaywanttoimproveonthedatasetbywishingtoundertake
primary data gathering ourselves.Wewould like to conduct surveys on
theground,inallthevillagesanddistrictsandcommunes.However,the
persistentrealityfacedbyCSOsisoneofresourceconstraints.Wenormally
donothavetheluxuryotime.Comprehensivedatagatheringisnormallydoneonaprojectbasis,andis
thereorediculttosustain(nonethelessitallowsorgoodbaselinedata).
Setyourlimitsbeforeyoubegin;consultwithyoursteeringcommitteeto
seewhetheryourplansormonitoringarepracticable.
Data Complexities
If data are available...
...itmaybediculttogatherandmayrequiremanyresourcesintermso
time,moneyandenergy....itsimplymightbetoopoorinqualityorterriblyoutdated.
...itmaybeincrediblenotbelievable.akestockothecredibilityoyour
data.Whatgoodisittocitedatathatoverstategovernmentsperormance
inlandreormimplementation?
...itmaybepatchy,onlyavailableorcertainpartsothecountry.
...itmaybediculttocompile.Whatpicturedoesthedatapaint?
Datadicultiesaretobeexpected,buttherearesomewaystoaddressor
overcomethem.riangulationisasignicantstepinvalidatinginormation.
Getalternativesources.
akenotethattherearealsoopportunitiespresentingthemselvesorland
monitoring.Forinstance,theincreasingattentiononlandgrabbingplaced
bymediacanassistusinminingmoredata.
Scarcity of institutions directly advocating land rights
Whomdowetalkwith?Tereseemtobeonlyaewiatallinstitutions
thataredirectlyengagedinlandrightsadvocacy.Iyouseemtobealone
inyourcountrydoingthis,nowisthetimetoexploreothercontacts.ry
proactivelylookingorpotentialpartnerswithintheacademe,orinstance.
OryoucanalsogoseekpartnerswithintheregionmanyCSOs,especially
withintheLandWatchAsianetwork,arereadytooertheirsupport.
Sustaining the Monitoring Initiative
Wecankeepthisrunningiitissimpleenough,doesnotdemandtoomany
resources,andisinstitutionalizedwithinnormalorganizationalactivities
within the LandWatchAsia campaign. Nationalnetworks knowwhich
partnersareresponsibleormonitoringwhichareasorthemes.
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Intheend,monitoringenhancesouradvocacy.Italsogivesusthatprecious
opportunitytolearnfromotherCSOsexperiences:fromthedatagenerated
aswellasthemethodologiesusedbyotherNGOs.Wecanalsoengagein
jointanalysisomonitoringresultsamongNGOs.
Endnote
a BasedonpilotmonitoringintheLandWatchAsiacountries,able5
summarizesthelevelsomonitoringpercountry,andwhichpartothe
conventionalmonitoringandevaluationcyclewasocusedon.
Country Level Monitoring Focus
Input Process Output Outcome Impact
Bangladesh National
Cambodia National
withselected
provinces
India National
Bihar state
Indonesia National
Nepal National
Pakistan National
Philippines National
Table 5: Level and Focus of Monitoring during Pilot Testing of CSO Land Reform
MonitoringFramework
Compiled by Nathaniel Don E. Marquez
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MonitoringLandTenureand tenure reers to the rules, authorities, institutions, rights
andnormsthatgovernaccesstoandcontroloverlandandrelated
resources.Itdenestherulesandrightsthatgoverntheappropriation,
cultivationanduseonaturalresourcesonagivenspaceorpieceoland.
It governs who can use what resources, or how long and under what
conditions.Strictlyspeaking,itisnotlanditselfthatisowned,butrights
and duties over it (International Fund or Agricultural Development
[IFAD],2008).
Iapersonhaslandtenuresecurity,itmeansthathisorherlandrightswill
berecognizedbyothersandprotected.Conversely,thosewhoareinsecure
intheirlandtenureareatrisktovariousclaimsontheir
landrights,andatrisktoeviction(FoodandAgriculture
Organization[FAO],2002).
In this initiative, land tenure comprises two broad variables:land disputes and evictions.
Land Disputes
Land disputesaredisagreementsoverlandthatariserom
conictingorcompetinginterestsodierentpartiesover
the sameparcel o land; land rights, boundaries, oruses
are contested, according to FAO (2002). Tese disputes
canoperateatanyscale,romtheinternationaltothose
between individual neighbors.(Herrera & da Passano,
2006,pp.8-9)
Tetermsdisputesandconictshavedierentconnotations.
However, or simplicitys sake, wewill use land disputes
interchangeably with land conicts here, unless stated
otherwise.
Forthepurposesoourmonitoring,wewouldliketolookatlanddisputes
amongtenants,armers,government,landowners,privatesector,andthe
Indicators for MonitoringThis section oers a more detailed treatment o the proposed indicators or monitoring, ocusing on
land tenure and access to land, but also on inputs such as budgets and policies. More importantly, it
provides working denitions or the indicators, as well as notes on rationale, possible data sources,
suggested approaches, and probes.
Box 2:LANDDISPUTES:INDICATORS
o Number o people killedo Number o people detainedo Number o persons harassed
o Number o land-related casesreceived
o Number o land-related casesinvestigated
o Number o land-related cases
adjudicatedo Number o cases o land grabbing
o Area (Percentage) o land grabbedo Average time in years or land
dispute resolution
Additional:
o Annual loss o time due to disputeso Annual monetary loss associated
with land disputes/litigation
o Annual loss o assets due to land
disputes
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state,tonameaewbutnotgenderdisputes,orintra-householdorintra-
amilydisputesoverlandpartitionandtheorderosuccession,orexample.
Youcanexpandyourmonitoringtocoverindigenouspeoplesandother
marginalizedsectors,butbearinmindthiswillentaildierentdenitions
andapproaches.
Wewouldliketodevelopananalysisotheunderlyingproblemsrelatedtoland.LandremainsamajorsourceoconictinmanyAsiancountries,
wherea greatpartothepopulationdependsonit or their livelihoods.
Ofen,conictsariseromquestionsonownershipandrightsandaccessto
resources,amidintensiyingcompetitionorlandandconictingpolicies.
By examining disputes and their causes, we can sharpen our
recommendations. For example, ourndingsmay show that poor land
records are the leading cause o disputes.Tismeans we can push or
improvement in land registries, such as through digitization. I our
monitoring results clearly demonstrate that land conicts arise becauseo conicting policies, we can push or a national land use plan, or a
harmonization or alignment o strategies. Furthermore, looking at the
natureodisputescanshedmorelightonpowerrelationsoverlandorthe
asymmetriesinconict.
Wecanidentiyvarioustypesoconict,especiallythosethatneedtobe
urgentlyaddressed,aswellasthosethatarelatentandhavethepotential
toescalateinthenearuture.Wecanadvocateorinterventionsthatcan
prevent,oratleastmitigate,suchconicts.
Killings, detention and harassment
Landdisputesmayeruptindirectviolence,withpeopleendingupharassed
orkilled.Directviolencereerstophysicalandmoralviolencethatmaybe
partointerpersonalconicts(Herrera&daPassano,2006,p.13).People
arealsodetained1orlockedupinprisononaccountolanddisputes.We
1 FIANsuggestsarbitrarydetentionwhichisindeedahumanrightviolation.However,thistypeodataisnotreadilyavailable,andnecessitatesprimarydatagathering.
Numberofpeoplekilled*
Te number o people killed rom land-related causes
Numberofpeopledetained*
Te number o people detained means who were arrested, detained or imprisoned
due to land-related causes
Numberofpersonsharassed*
Te number o people persecuted, intimidated, and/or threatened with violence.
For the sake o simplicity, we are looking at how many people are harassed not
how many times a person is harassed.
*o the extent possible, please provide data per 100,000 population (See Box 3).
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learnromusingarights-basedapproachinthiscaseocusingonhuman
rightsviolationsbecauseolandthaturgentactionisneededtosaeguard
these land rights and exact accountability rom governments toprevent
violationsolandrights.
Gathering DataData onlanddisputes can come romocialrecords,when complaints
arelodgedwithocialinstitutions;datacanalsobeobtainedromNGO
records(Bending,2010).Killingsassociatedwithlanddisputesarereported
invaryingdegrees,dependingonthesource.Land-relatedharassmentsand
detentionsaremorediculttotrack.
Te attribution problem: rmly establishing disputes as directly land-
relatedisnotalwayseasy,nordoable.Becareulincitinglandasthecause
odisputes, as disputesmay be complex andmulti-layered. In building
evidence-based advocacies, we are trying to look at land disputes thatemanate rom problems directly related to the land, rather than rom
psychologicalactors.2
Moreover,dataonharassmentisparticularlydiculttoobtain,becauseit
ofengoesunreported.Tepoliticalenvironmentmayalsoconstraindata
gathering,especiallyinsituationswhenthemilitaryisinvolved.Reporting
onkillings,detentionsandharassmentsmaynotbepossiblepoliticallyor
legally.Considerthisaswellinmonitoringlanddisputes,andbeprudent.
Inlieuogovernmentocialsources,whichishardtocomeby,theollowing
sourcesaresuggested(able6):
Probing
Humanrightsviolationscontinuetobecommittedagainstarmers,despite
thepresenceodisputeresolutionmechanisms(PhilippinePartnershipor
theDevelopmentoHumanResourcesinRuralAreas[PhilDHRRA],2010).
2 AccordingtoHerreraanddePassano:Land disputes can operate at any scale, rom the inter-national to those between individual neighbors. At whatever scale, the dispute is likely to owe as muchto the general psychology o neighborly relations as to actual problems relating to the land (2006).
Bo3:Absolutenumbersorper100,000population
We are looking at land-related killings, detainments and harassment; as well as cases re-
ceived, investigated and adjudicated. Looking at raw counts or absolute numbers e.g. 3,205demonstrates the magnitude o the problem and helps compare the gures as they change
over time.
On the other hand, to more easily compare countries o diferent sizes with respectively di-
erent characteristics, we would like to normalize the data to a denominator o 100,000. Fordata such as killings, 100,000 represents the smallest number that will generally not yield
an answer in decimals e.g. 0.02% o the population are harassed.
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Alternative Sources Remarks
Human rights commissions,organizations, and special
rapporteurs
Human rights commissions or organizations may not ocus on land or separate land as acategory, but some o them may note land as a cause o the dispute.
The Asian Human Rights Commission (www.humanrights.asia) and Amnesty Internationalare two possible sources o data.
The work o special rapporteurs on human rights violations is relevant at the national level.
Media reports e.g. news
articles, video coverage
Media coverage is rarely comprehensive, and tends to eature only sensational cases.
Killingsarereportedfarmoreoftenthanincidentsofdetentionandharassment.
Research papers romacademic institutions
These reports will likely be methodologically sound and undergo a rigorous researchprocess. Academic institutions are also generally respected or neutrality.
Land-ocused rights-based
NGOs/CSOs
AfewCSOs/NGOsactuallymonitorland-relateddisputes,includingkillings,detentionand
harassment.
CSOslikeNGOForumonCambodiaalsohavelegalocerswhomakeeldinvestigations
(Box4).
In the Philippines, NGOs have monitored the land disputes between agrarian reorm
beneciaries and landowners; some have ocused on overlapping claims o diferentsectors like indigenous peoples and armers.
FoodFirst and Inormation Action Network (FIAN) is a rights-based organization working
towards the realization o the right to ood. They document cases o violations o the right
to ood; some cases are land-related.
In Bangladesh, ALRD and HDRC have used surveys to gather data on deaths, harassments,detainments in amilies undergoing land litigation.
ThesurveymethodisalsousedbyCEPES(aLatinAmericanCSO)toassessfrequency,
severity and nature o disputes.
Groups that work at the grassroots level will give detailed albeit localized data i.e.,
inormation limited to their area o work.
Table6:AlternativeSourcesofDataonHumanRightsViolationsRelatedtoLand
Box4:Land Disputes in Cambodia
Since2006,Cambodiahasseenageneralincreasingtrendinlanddisputesbetweentherich
and powerul on one hand, and the poor and weak on the other. Reports o land grabbingare rie, and many Cambodians live under threat o eviction. The NGO Forum on Cambodia,
togetherwithotherCSOsmakinguptheLandActionNetworkforDevelopment(LAND),
has embarked on systematic monitoring o land disputes in the country. Drawing rom avariety o sources including media, LAND network members, and eld investigations, its
database contains inormation on land disputes that specically have involved at least vehouseholds: location, incident date, number o households, land size, primary land type, and
resolution status.
Thespatialdistribution,typesofdisputes,typesoflanddisputed,strategiesinlandacquisition,
actorsinvolved,reasonsforlandacquisition,landdisputeresolutionmechanisms,defendant
and complainant claims, among others, are all subjected to statistical analysis. Moreover,
thereportusesgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)mapstopresentthenumberofland
disputecases andaected households according toprovince.Such evidence-based data
help strengthen land rights advocacy in Cambodia.
Source: NGO Forum on Cambodia. (2011). Statistical analysis on land disputes in Cambodia, 2010. Phnom
Penh: Author.
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Wecanusestatisticalanalysistodrawconclusionsonhowlanddisputesare
correlatedtoothervariables,suchascorruptionandtransparency.
Land-RelatedCasesReceived,investigatedandadjudicatedand
ResolvedAhighratiooland-relatedcaseshighlightstheheavyrelianceonandcompetitionorland.Asitwere,land-relatedcasesconstituteasignicantpartocourtcaseloadsinmanyAsiancountries,includingallcountriescoveredinthelandreormmonitoringinitiative.InIndonesia,anestimated60%-70%oprocessedcasesareland-related,basedondatafromtheSupremeJustice(SajogyoInstitute[SAINS]&KonsorsiumPembaruanAgraria[KPA],2011).Pakistanhasmuchas80%ocasesbroughttothelower-levelcivilcourtsandhighcourtsrelatedtoland(SCOPE,2011).LanddisputesinNepalmakeupsome31%ofledcases
(CSRC,2011).
Numberofcasesreceived*
Te number o land-related cases led and received in ormal dispute
resolution mechanisms by the courts or adjudication boards.
Numberofcasesinvestigated*
Te number o cases that are investigated these received a response romthe government, and were examined thoroughly and systematically in a
year. It should be noted not all cases are investigated within the year they
are led.
Numberofcasesadjudicated*
Adjudication is a ormal orm o confict resolution, where evidence is
presented to a judge by both sides; the judges ruling results in a clear-cut
decision avoring one side (Herrera & da Passano, 2006).
Averagetime(inyears)forlanddisputeresolution
Tis reers to the average length o time (using years as the unit o
measurement) that it takes or a land dispute to be resolved.
*o the extent possible, please provide data per 100,000 population (See Box 3).
Gathering Data
Manydisputesandland-relatedcasesareunrecordedorunreported.Bear
inmindthatnotallcountrieshaveaspecicentityworkingonlanddisputes
andtheirresolutions.Forexample,dierentagenciesmayhandledierent
categoriesolande.g.orestedandnon-orestedland.
Bo5:WhatisaCase?
The most common understanding o the word case is that it is an incident that passes
through a dispute resolution system, be it ormal or inormal. In a ew circumstances, it
could simply reer to an occurrence or incident recorded by NGOs, government, researchinstitutions, or others. Cases to be monitored may include judicial cases, administrative
cases, and those under mediation.
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Bo6:Etrapolation
According to the Merriam-Webster English Dictionary: to extrapolate means:
a: to project, extend, or expand (known data or experience) into an area not knownor experienced so as to arrive at a usually conjectural knowledge o the unknown
areab: to predict by
projecting past experience or known data
Source: Extrapolation. 2012. In Merriam-Webster.com.
Analternativetotheaveragetimeorlanddisputeresolutionistonotehow
manycasesarestillpending.
Iitisdiculttoobtaindataonthenumberoland-relatedcasesadjudicated,
youmayextrapolate(Box6)usinginormationontherateodisposal(therateatwhichcasesaresettled)andrateopendingcases.
Idataonland-relatedcasesareunavailableatthenationallevel,youmay
trylookingatthedistrict/provincial/villagelevel.Comparedtothenumber
ocasesatthenationallevel,therewillnaturallybemorecasesatthelocal
level.Many cases are already amicably settled at the lower level. Also,
most poor people cannot aord the costs o litigation and traditionally
relyonlocal-levelarbitrationoralternativedisputeresolution(ADR)or
theresolutionosimpledisputes.Morecomplexorseverecasesreachthe
highcourts.Becauseissuesaresettledatthelocallevel,localarbitrationcomplementsandminimizestheloadotheormalcourtsystem.
Data onlanddisputes atthe lowest levelcanbesignicant,especially i
theincidenceishigh;however,gatheringandaggregatinglocal-leveldatais
ofentime-consuming.
Again,amoredoableoptionforCSOs/NGOsistoincludelocalizeddata
thatcoverstheirgeographicareasowork.
Probing
Caveat: speedy dispute resolution is not intrinsically good. Expediting
disputeresolutionmaybedetrimental i itcomesat the expenseodue
process.Teormalcourtsystemofendisadvantagesthepoor.Questions
worthexploringare:In whose avor are cases settled in avor o the rich? or
o the poor? Are dispute resolution mechanisms (ormal and inormal) at the
lower level eective?
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Land Grabbing
Landgrabbinggenerallyreerstothephenomenonwherearmlandsare
leasedoracquiredbylocalandoreignentities(romtheprivatesectoras
wellasgovernments)mostlyoragriculturalproduction,butalsoincluding
specialeconomiczones,realestate,andresource-extractiveactivities.Land
grabbingisueledbytheinuxoinvestments,andusuallyinvolveslarge-scalelandacquisitionsandleases.Landsgrabbedincludeprivatelyowned
land,landundergovernmentuse,landsoreligiousandculturalminorities,
tonameaew.3
Althoughtheabovedenitionisgenerallytheacceptedone,thetermland
grabbing means dierent things to dierent groups, and is thus used
variably.Nonetheless,thetermimpliesthatland is taken without the consent
or agreement o the other party.
Aferpilottesting the indicators,we havecometothe ollowingresults:
Indonesiadenesitasseizureolandthathasbeencultivatedandsettled
inbythepeople,that,despiteproooownershipandpaymentotaxes,
governmentandbigbusinessestaketheirlandsorplantationsormilitary
facilities (SAINS & KPA, 2011). Use of the term in Bangladesh is for
powerul people illegally occupying state-owned land(Barkat, 2011). In
Cambodia,landgrabshaveoccurredbecauseoeconomiclandconcessions
(STAR Kampuchea, 2011). India, Cambodia and the Philippines have
experiencedlandgrabbingortheexpansionospecialeconomiczones;
whileminingconcessionsin Indonesia,Cambodia,andthePhilippines
areconsideredlandgrabbingandhasdisplacedmanyacommunityinthose
countries(ANGOC,2012).Nepalslandgrabbingeaturestheconversion
o agricultural lands or real estate development amid land speculation3 Formoreinormation,pleasereertoANGOCsLok Niti:LandGrab:ChangingtheerrainoLandenureVolume18/12012.
Bo7:LandGrabbing:ADenition
ILC: Local-level land grabs particularly by powerul local elites, within communities or
among amily members.
Large-scalelandgrabbing:asacquisitionsorconcessionsthatareoneormore
o the ollowing:
(i)in violation o human rights, particularly the equal rights o women; (ii) not basedon ree, prior and inormed consent o the aected land-users; (iii) not based on a
thorough assessment, or are in disregard o social, economic and environmental
impacts, including the way they are gendered; (iv) not based on transparent
contracts that speciy clear and binding commitments about activities, employment
and benets sharing, and; (v) not based on eective democratic planning,
independent oversight and meaningul participation.
-Tirana Declaration, ILC Assembly o Members
Source: International Land Coalition (2011). Tirana Declaration
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(CSRC,2012).Pakistanreferstolandgrabbinginthecontextofclaiming
landownershipthroughlegalorextra-legalmeans,whiledispossesingits
trueowners(SCOPE,2011).Becauseitispossiblethatacountrymayhave
relativelyewcasesolandgrabbing,butwhichconcernvast swatheso
land,wewillalsoconsiderthepercentageoareaolandgrabbed,tothe
extentpossible.
TeInternationalLandCoalitionalsoputsorwarditsowndenitiono
landgrabbing.(SeeBox7).
Numberoflandgrabbingcases
Te number o documented cases o land grabbing
Percentageofland-grabbedarea
Area o land grabbed, as a percentage o total land. Tis can be easily
calculated by dividing the total area o land grabbed by the total area o
cultivable agricultural land.
%areaolandgrabbed=areaolandgrabbed
totalareaocultivatedland
Gathering Data
Firstthingsrst:inundertakingmonitoring,youshouldlabortoexplain
specicallyhowyouusethetermlandgrabbinginyourcountry.
Consolidateddataonlandgrabbinganditsmagnitudearediculttoobtain,
ofenpatchy,primarilybecauseothelackotransparencyontheparto
governmentsandtheprivatesector.Muchishearsayoranecdotalevidence.
Mediareportshavebeenapopularsourceodatainthecourseopiloting.
Inmost countries,there are noauthoritative sources inthe countries as
regardshowmuchlandhasactuallybeenacquiredorleased.
Ideally,youwillhavedatapercaseon:locationandsizeolandgrabbed,
source o investment (e.g. which oreign government or multinational
corporation),amountoinvestment,yearoreportedincident,anddata
source.able7 (on the ollowing page) isa suggestiononhowyou can
presentyourdata.
able8(seepage179)showsaewsourcesolandgrabbingdata,withaew
tentativecommentsonwhattoexpect.
Bo8:WhatisaCase?
When dealing with land grabbing specically, we reer to documented incidents o land
grabbing, rather than technical cases or lawsuits that are led in court.
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Many CSOs have demonstrated excellence in case documentation,
describing inmostly qualitativetermshow communitiesare aected by
landgrabbing.Weputorwardtheollowingconsiderationsinpreparing
acasestudy:
Actors.Whoareinvolved?Whichcompanies?Whichgovernments,and
whichspecicagencies?
Transparency.Arethetransactionsopenandtransparent?Oraretheyconductedinstealthandsecrecy?
Community participation.Wastheaectedcommunityconsultedand
listenedto?
Geography.Whereisthelandgrabbingtakingplace?Whatisthearea
othe landunderconict?Temorespecic, thebetter.Itwouldbe
helpultoshowthepreciseareaonamap.
Impacts. Howarethecommunitiesaected?Inkeepingwiththeland
monitoringinitiative,trytobeasspecicaspossibleindescribingthe
impacts,howmanypeoplewereaected,whatwastheimpactonland
tenureandoodsecurity?etc. Others.AlsoexaminetheindicatorsproposedintheCSOLandReform
MonitoringFramework.
LossofTime,Money,andAssetsduetoLandDisputes
Teollowingindicatorsaresuggestedtodeepenanalysis.Ingeneral,data
isnotreadilyavailable,andcanonlybeestimated.
Entity/Country Description Location Amount
Involved*
Year Data Source
Bahrain 10,000 ha oragroshery
Unknown $300 M 2009 Campos, Othel. 31 March 2009.RP, Bahrain sign $300-m arm
investment package. Manila
Standard Today.
SaudiArabia(ANI/
FEAICO)50,000 haor crop
plantationsand processing
plants
Mindanao Initialcapitalization
o $1 millionundera60%
Filipino and
40%foreign
equity
ownershipand prot
sharing
scheme
2010 armlandgrab.org (a websitemanaged by GRAIN) http://
farmlandgrab.org/12807
SaudiArabia 50 ha or crop
plantation
Davao 2009 http://farmlandgrab.org/9798
Table7:NewsreportsonfarmlandgrabbinginthePhilippines
*This would pertain to the amount o agricultural investment, or transaction cost.Adapted rom PhilDHRRA. (2010). Systematizing access to land monitoring in the Philippines. Monograph submitted to ANGOC.
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Gathering Data
Asimpleandinexpensivemethodhasbeenproposed4todetermineannual
loss o timeandannual loss o moneyduetolanddisputes,assumingthe
number o disputes is known. Note that these indicators can only be
estimated.
Annual loss o timecanbeextrapolatedbasedon:theannualnumbero
land-relatedpendingcases;theaveragenumberopersonsinvolvedineach
caseasplainti,deendant,amilymembersandwitnesses;andaverage
lossohoursperyearperpersoninvolved.Annual loss o timeshouldbe
convertedintohoursastheunitomeasurement.
Tebestillustrationoextrapolationorthisindicatorcomesrompilot
testing the monitoring indicators, specically rom the experience in
Bangladesh:
Extrapolation can be done based on annual number o land-related
pendingcases(2.5millioncases),numberopersonsinvolvedineachcases
(asplainti,deendant,theiramilymembers,andwitnesses;45personsper
case),andaveragelossohoursperyearperpersoninvolved(15hoursper
yearperperson)showsthattheannuallossotimeduetolanddisputes
amountsto1,687millionhours(orequivalentto211millionworkdays)
(ALRD,2011).Ontheotherhand,annual monetary losscanbecalculated
bymultiplyingtheannuallossotimeduetolanddisputes(seeprevious
paragraph)byusingpercapitaGDPperhour(dividingby365daysina
yearandthenumberoworkhoursperday.)Tiswillthenbemultipliedbytheannualnumberodisputestoyieldannual indirect monetary loss.
Forexample,theannual loss o timehasbeencomputedas100millionhours.
Wecanderivetheannualmoneylostduetolanddisputes:wemultiplythe
hoursolosttime(inthiscase,100millionhours)bytheaveragehourlyrate.
WebasethisrateonthepercapitaGDP.Ithegrossdomesticproductper
capita(perperson)is$1,200/year:i)wedividethisgureby365days(or
onecalendaryear).Teworthoapersonsworkis$3.29perday.ii)When
wedividebyanassumptiono8workinghoursperday,weobtainaresult
o$0.41/hour.iii)Wemultiply$0.41/hourbytheannuallossotime,100
millionhours.Teresultis$41millionestimatedastheannualmonetary
loss.Teindicatoronannual loss o timecallsattentiontotheactthattime
particularlythetimeothepoorwhoareinvolvedinlandlitigationisa
criticalresource.AnnualmonetarylossindicatestheindirectlosstoGDP,
implyingtheimpactolanddisputesonthenationaleconomy,onwasting
productivehoursinlandlitigation,amongothers.
4 Dr.AbulBarkathasdoneextensiveresearchonthepoliticaleconomyolandlitigationinBangladesh,usingarangeouseulindicators.
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Youcanndupdatedeconomicstatistics,includingonGDPpercapitaby
lookingatgovernmenteconomicreports,aswellasromstatisticsrom
internationalnancialinstitutions(IFIs)liketheAsianDevelopmentBank
andtheWorldBank.Dataorthisareofenavailableonline.GDPremains
a term that policymakers can easily understand. When an amount is
calculatedortoexpresstheannuallosstothecountryseconomyintermsoGDP,itcanbeapoweruladvocacytoolorlandaccess.
Teindicatoronannuallossoassetlooksatthedirectburdenexperienced
bythoseinvolvedinlanddisputes.Itisbroaderinthesensethatitreects
thetotalvalueoassetsnotjustlandandmoneylost.Peoplesstandard
olivingdeclinewhentheyareinvolvedinlanddisputes.
I you are more interested in the eects o land disputes in terms o
opportunitycosts,ontheabsenceodataonlossoasset,youcanalsolook
atotherindicatorssuchas:eesormedicaltreatmentaferexperiencingviolence;theschooldropoutrateochildren;orthechildrensinabilityto
takethenationaltestasaresultolanddisputes.5
Tisindicatorisimportantbecauseitrecognizesthathighcostsassociated
withlitigationofendrivepoorpeopletolandlessnessandpovertyeveni
theverdictisintheiravor.6
Probing
Alltheaorementionedindicatorsonlanddisputesshould
serveasspringboardoranalysisonmajor causes o disputesaswellasthenatureortype o disputes.
Are the disputes over boundaries or overlapping land
titles?Aretheconictswithormerlandowners?Arethelanddisputes
betweengranteesoeconomiclandconcessionsandaectedpeoples?
Who perpetrates the human rights violations: government,military,
rebelgroups,paramilitary,orprivatelandowners?Ithedataisavailable,
youcanenumeratethecategoriesolanddisputesandthenumbero
incidentspercategory,andpresentthisinormationinagraphorchart.
Wherearelanddisputestakingplace?Isthereaspecialreasonforthis?
Whatistheextentofcorruptioninlanddisputes?
Evictions
A orced eviction is the permanent or temporary removal against
the will o individuals, amilies, and/or communities rom the homes
5 TiswasasuggestionromtheIndonesiacountrymonitoringreport.6 InBangladesh,ithasbeenoundthatlitigationaectsbothpartiesinthesamewaylead-ingtoeconomicloss,thoughthiswillbeinvaryingdegrees.Formoreinormation,pleasereertoPolitical economy o land litigation.
Bo9:EVICTIONS:INDICATORS
o Number o households evicted/
displaced rom armso
Number o households becom-ing totally homeless o eviction
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and/or land which they occupy, without the provision o, and access
to, appropriate orms o legal or other protection (UN Committee on
Economic,SocialandCulturalRights,1997).
Adisplacementistheorcedmovementopeopleawayromtheirland,or
variousreasons:inducedbydevelopment,naturaldisastersorconict.Forthepurposesolandreormmonitoring,wewillonlylookatdevelopment-
orceddisplacementandresettlement 7(DFDR),whichisdisplacementin
thenameodevelopment.Activities ordevelopmentinclude large-scale
inrastructure (e.g. dams), economicdevelopmentprojects,mining, and
plantations.
Tisisappliedtocommunitiesorgroupsopeople,ratherthanindividuals.
Sincewearemonitoringlandtenure,wewillnotcoverdisplacementsdueto
naturalhazards(e.g.oods,tsunamis,anddesertication),armedconict,
generalized violence andcivil strie. Internally displacedpersons (IDPs)andenvironmentalreugeesarethusexcludedromthislist.
Evictions and displacements are similar concepts. Tey both have
connotationsoviolenceandcoercion.Displacementisusedinterchangeably
withorcedmigration;orthepurposesothismonitoringinitiative,we
willuse displacement again, excluding natural disasters- or conict-
induceddisplacementsinterchangeablywithevictions.
Numberofhouseholdsevicted/displacedfromfarms*
Tis reers to the number o households that are either evicted ordisplaced rom their arms in a year.
Numberofhouseholdsbecomingtotallyhomelessofeviction
Tis indicator looks at how many evicted or displaced households are
unable to nd options or resettlement and are rendered completely
homeless.
Totheextentpossible,pleaseprovidedataper100,000population.
Gathering Data
HumanrightsgroupssuchasAmnestyInternationalprovidesomedataon
evictions.
OtherCSOsfocusonlandgrabbingandrecordthenumberofpeopleand
communitiesevictedordisplaced,anddescribehowthisisdone (see section
on land grabbing).
7 Formerlycalleddevelopment-induceddisplacement
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Monitoring Access to LandAccess to landistheabilitytouselandandothernatural
resources,tocontroltheresourcesandtotransertherights
to the land and take advantage o other opportunities
(IFAD,2008).
Accesstolandindicatorswillinvestigatethedistribution
orconcentrationolandownershipandlandlessness.
LandOwnershipandLandlessness
TepatternsolandownershipinAsiaareknowntobeskewedoruneven,
withmanylandownersowningsmallparcelsoland,whileahandulobig
landownersinpossessionovastswathesoland.Tereisalsoaproportion
olandlessruralpeople.Inmonitoringlandownershipandlandlessness,we
arespecicallylookingatrural/agriculturallands.
Land Ownership Distribution by Size
Landownershipdistributionbysize
Reers to the distribution o land ownership grouped according to the size
o the plots o land. It shows the patterns o land distribution; in the case
o many Southeast and South Asian countries, the concentration o land in
the hands o a ew.
Landlessness
Numberoflandlessruralpersons
Tis reers to the absolute number o landless people in rural areas.
Percentageoflandlessruralpersonsamongruralpopulation
Tis reers to the number o landless rural persons expressed as a percentage
o rural population.
Landlessnessisdenedasthestateothoseagriculturalworkersnotowning
orrentinglandandwithoutaccesstopermanentemployment(FAO,2003).
Landlessnessliterallymeanstheabsolutelackoland,butnotallcountries
stick to this usage. In Bangladesh, or instance, landlesshouseholdsare
technicallythoseowningbetween0and49decimals(adecimalbeinga
hundredthoanacreor40.46squaremeters)(Barkat,2011).Indonesias
landlessownlessthan0.2ha(SAINS&KPA,2011).Somecountriesmake
the distinction between landless or thosewith absolutely no land
andthelandpoorwhereparcelsaresosmallthattheycannotsupport
householdneeds.InCambodia,theland-poorownlessthan0.5ha(STAR
Kampuchea,2011);inNepal,lessthan0.1ha(CSRC,2012).Pakistanhas
categories for the landless and nearly landless (SCOPE, 2011). e
Bo10
LANDOWNERSHIPAND
LANDLESSNESS:INDICATORS
o Land ownership distribution by sizeo Number o landless rural persons
o Percentage o landless rural persons
o Gini coecient
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PhilippinesCARPlawstatesthatlandlessbeneciariesarethoseowningless
than3haoagriculturalland;butthisisorlandredistributionpurposes.
SomeNGOsmaintainthatthelandlessarethosewithlandholdingsofless
than1ha.
Andthenthereiseective ownership(includingeectiveretention),distinctromnominalownership.Toughonemaybethelegalownerandcultivator
otheland,othersmayclaimrightsovertheharvest.Ideally,monitoring
shouldnotonlylookatwhetherpeoplehavelandtitle.Insteaditshould
examine whether they exercise eective land ownership or control, by
ulllingthreeconditions:
Titledeed(legalowner)
Righttocultivatetheland(usufructuaryright)
Righttoharvestthecultivation(benets)
Tosewhocannotsatisyallotheabovethreeconditionsareconsidered
landless(ANGOC,2010a).
Gathering Data
Usually,dataonsizedistributionolandownershiparepresentedinterms
onumberolandholdings(e.g.5%othetotalnumberolandholdings
arelarge),andintermsotheirareaasasizecategory(e.g.40%othetotal
agriculturalareaismadeupomarginalarmslessthan1ha).Dataonthe
numberolandholdings,arms,oragriculturalhouseholdsaremoreofen
availablethantheirarea.
Temostcrediblesourceodataorthisaretheregularagriculturalcensuses
conductedinmostcountries.
edataondistributionwillbepresentedinatable.Seetheexampleofland
ownershipdistributioninIndia(able9).
Number of holdings, as percentage
oftotal(%)
Areaofholdings,aspercentageoftotal(%)
Marginal(below1ha) 64.77 20.42
Small(1-2ha) 18.53 21.10
Semi-medium(2-4ha) 10.93 24.15
Medium(4-10ha) 4.93 23.27
Large(over10ha) 0.83 11.06
Note: Total may not tally due to rounding ofSource:AgriculturalCensus,2005-2006,ascitedinAssociationofVoluntaryAgenciesforRuralDevelopment(2012). Country land reorms
monitoring report. Report submitted to ANGOC.
Table9:NumberandareaofindividualandjointholdingsaspercentageoftotalinIndia(2005-2006)
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Observethatlandownershipisusuallygroupedaccordingtoclasssizes:
marginal; small; semi-medium; medium; and large. Te Agricultural
Census o India has complete inormation on the absolute number o
landholdingsbysize,aswellastheirarea.Youmaychoosetoincludethis
data.Butsinceweareinterestedspecicallyinthedistribution,weneedto
lookatthepercentages.
Intheexampleabove,wecanseethenumberoholdingsaspercentageo
total.Tisisderivedbydividingthenumberomarginalholdingsbythe
totalnumberofholdings.Similarly,theareaofmarginalholdingsisdivided
bythetotalareaolandholdingsinthecountry.
Nepalprovidesanotherexample(able10):
Note that in other countries, classiying landholdings by size such aslandless,marginal,smallorlargedoesnotexist.Inthatcase,simply
usethesizecategory(e.g.0.100.19ha,0.200.49ha,etc.).SeeTable11
orexample.
Wecanneveremphasizethisenoughnever orget to accurately acknowledge
your source, including its year o publication (see section on citations).
Ranking Ownership(inha) Number of households Number of households as
percentageoftotal(%)
Landless 00.1 287,100 10.13
Marginal 0.10.3 670,000 23.64
Small 0.30.5 648,000 22.86
Medium 0.53 1,131,560 39.93
Rich 310 93,700 3.31
Richest More than 10 3,800 0.13
Table10:Number of households in Nepal, by size group
Source:CentralBureauofStatistics,2006ascitedinCommunitySelf-RelianceCentre.(2012). Land reorm monitoring indicators, Nepal.
Kathmandu:Author.
Categoryoflandholding(ha) Percentageoftotal(%)
5.00 1.6
Total 100.00
Table11:PercentageofCategoryoflandholdersinIndonesia,2003
Source:BadanPusatStatistik(BPS)AgriculturalCensus,2003,ascitedinSajogyo&KPA.(2011). Land issue
and policy monitoring initiative: Indonesia report. Report submitted to ANGOC.
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Data collection on landlessness is politically sensitive (Bending, 2010).
Basedonthe resultsopilot testing this indicator,each country uses its
owndenitionolandlessness.Forsomecountries,anocialdenitiono
landlessnessexists,andincludestheupperlimits(iever)olandownership
e.g.,0to0.2ha.Dataonlandlessnessmaybeoundinthetablesonsize
distributionolandownership.Inosuchdataonlandlessnessexists,youmayextrapolatebasedonthe totalnumbero armersorhouseholdsin
agricultureversusthenumberoarmersorhouseholdsinagriculturethat
possesstheirownparceloland.
ProbingRecognizingthatshers,andindigenouspeoplesandothermarginalizedgroupswillhavedierent,morenuanced,contextsorlandownership,weencourageyoutodevelopsub-indicatorsaccordingly.Ownershipwillhavetobetreatedasamoreexibleconceptorsuchgroups.8
Analysis is warranted on trends o land ownership, such as: landragmentation, land reconcentration, and inequality. For instance, thevariousdimensionso inequalityarealmostalwayscorrelatedtoeachoneanother(McKay,2002).Weencouragelandrightsadvocatestoexplorehowlandinequalityislinkedtoothersuchdimensionsoinequality,suchashealthandnutrition,education,power,andgender.
Lastly, we mention that the average size o landholdings (weighted) isanotheruseulindicatororaccesstoland,especiallygiventhegenerallyskewednatureolandownership.Teweightedaveragewillaccountorthedierencesinthenumberolandholdingspersizeclass.Tiswillcomein
handywhenanalyzingtrendsinlandownershipandlandlessness.
GiniCoecient
In a region wherethe gapbetween rich and poor, not only in termso
incomes, but also assets such land, is reputedly increasing, measuring
inequalityisuseul.TeGinicoecientorlandownershipinequalityis
proposedasanindicatortoassistanalysisolandownershiptrends.Tis
indicatoroinequalitycanpaintagoodpictureothestateolandreorm
implementation.Highlevelso inequalityinlandownershipmaysuggest
that, or example, the task o land reorms is still unnished, or that a
reversalolandreormsistakingplace.
Ginicoecientlandorincomeinequality
Also known as the Gini index or Gini ratio, the Gini coecient is used as
an expression o inequality, and moves rom a continuum o 0 to 1, with 0
describing perect equality and 1 (or 100) denoting perect inequality.
8 Admittedly,suchmeasuresolandconcentrationmaynotreectaccesstolandasexperiencedbygroupsoutsideormalregistrationsystems.
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Gathering Data
While we encourage CSOs to use Gini coecients in their analyses,
calculating or the Gini coecientwill bemore skillully calculated by
economists.
Ginicoecients,aremoreeasilyavailable,willmostlikelybeorincomesratherthanlandspecically.Terearesomestudiesonlandinequalitythat
employtheGinicoecient,butthereisarmoredataavailableontheGini
coecientorincomeinequality.
FAOactuallyhasadatabaseoagriculturalcensusdata,includingdataon
number,area,andtenureoholdings,andtheGiniindexoconcentration,
romseveralAsiancountries.However,thedataareold,thelatestbeing
romtheagriculturalcensusroundo1990.
Othersourcesoincomeinequalitydatainclude:
e World Income Inequality Database (WIID) of United Nations
University World Institute or Development Economics Research
(UNU-WIDER) http://www.wider.unu.edu/research/Database/en_
GB/database/
eWorldBanks"ANewDataSetMeasuringIncomeInequality",Te
World Bank Economic Review,10(3):565-91,1996.(Toughthisisabit
dated).
TenancyRightsenancyisthegeneraltermusedtoreertothearrangement
oarmingonlandthatisnotonesown.enancyrightsare
themissingelementbetweenownershipandlandlessness.
Althoughtenantsmayhavetherighttoharvest,theydo
notowntheland.
Sharecropping, the most common form of tenancy, is the traditional
arrangementwhereinthearmergivesacertainpre-arrangedpercentage
or share o his produce to the landowner as rent. Tere are dierent
sharecropping arrangements. Somehave 50-50 terms; others 40-60; etc.
Sharecroppingispopularbecauseitisexible,responsivetoproduction
conditions;andrequiresminimumcashonthepartopoorsharecroppers
(Lastarria-Cornhiel&Melmed-Sanjak,1999inFAO,2001).
In some cases, the distinction is made between sharecropping and
tenancy,wheretheuseotenancyisnarrower,meaningtheleaseoland.
Leaseholders,asthetermsuggests,paythelandownermonetaryrentor
theland.
Bo11:
TENANCYRIGHTS:INDICATORSo Number o sharecropperso Percentage o sharecroppers with
legal documents
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Numberofsharecroppers
Tis reers to the number o sharecroppers armers giving a pre-arranged
percentage or share o their produce to the landowner as rent.
Percentage of sharecroppers with legal documents among total
sharecroppers Te number o sharecroppers who possess legal documents, expressed as a
percentage among the total number o sharecroppers.
%osharecropperswithlegaldocuments= #osharecropperswithlegaldocuments
totalnumberosharecroppers
Manysharecroppersintheregiondonothavetitles,andagreementsare
unwritten. Tis leaves sharecroppers in a vulnerable position, where
landlords can easily terminatetheir services. However, even thosewith
legaldocumentsarenotnecessarilymoresecurethanthosewithoutmosttenantsarepowerlessintheaceotheirlandlords.Evenisharecroppers
ortenantsaretheoreticallyprotectedbylegaldocuments,theactthattheir
accesstolegalassistanceislimitedmakesiteasyortheirlandlordstoevict
themanytime.
Gathering Data
Someocialdataisavailableinsomecountriesagriculturalcensuses,land
departmentsorministries,large-scalestudies.
ProbingApartromsharecroppers,wecandelveintothesituationoothergroups
workingontheland:agriculturallaborers,contractarmers,bondedlabor,
andleaseholdersorlessees.Otherquestionstoconsider:
What are the sharecropping or leasehold arrangements between
sharecroppersandtheirlandlords?
Forthosewithlegaldocuments,howsecureistheirtenure?
Trends:Overtime,isthenumberofsharecroppersrising?Orfalling?Is
thenumberocontractarmersgrowing?Whatdothesesuggest?
BudgetforAgrarianReformFor countries with agrarian reorm programs, the budget indicates how
serioustheirgovernmentsareinimplementingagrarianreormtoaddress
landlessness.Tebudgetonagrarianreormcouldbemonitored,notonly
lookingatthetotalgures,butthevariousbudgetlinesadministrative
expenses like salaries; land redistribution; and support services (credit,
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inrastructure,roads),tonamesome.
Laws and policies should be matched with corresponding nancial
allocationsinthebudget;otherwisetheycannotbeimplemented.
Gathering Data
Sometimesdataonagrarianreformbudgetsarenotavailableatall.Somecountriesdonothaveabudgetlinespecicallyonlandreorm.Inthe
absence o agrarian reorm budgets, alternative or proxy indicators on
governmentsprioritizationoenhancingaccesstolandcaninclude:
Allocationforotherland-relatedprogramssuchaslanduse
Agriculturebudget
It has been suggested that the research and development budget or
agriculture can stand in as an indicator or land reorm. Oentimes, this
data is easier to access.
Ocialdevelopmentassistanceinagricultureandagrarianreform Tis looks at support provided rom both multilateral and donor agencies
or agrarian reorm and agriculture. Tese international agencies usually
share inormation about program and project costs. IFIs do not only
provide aid in the orm o grants, but also loans.
Probing
Budget monitoringisarecommendeddirectionorlandrightsadvocates.
AhandfulofCSOshaveundertakeninitiativesonbudgetmonitoring.In
thePhilippines,PhilDHRRAhasexaminedthebudgetotheDepartment
oAgrarianReorm,andpublisheditsresultsaccordingly.TeCenterorAgrarianReormandRuralDevelopment(CARRD)hasalsomonitoredthe
budgetspecicallyonthedeliveryoagrarianjustice.
PoliciesonWomen,IndigenousPeoplesandotherMarginalized Groups
Becauselandownershipandaccesstolandotheruralpooralsodepend
onwhoyouare, therearelawsandpoliciesthatseek touphold the land
rightsomarginalizedgroups,includingwomen,indigenouspeoples,and
shers.
ReviewingPolicies
Tegamutolegalandpolicyrameworksincludesnationalconstitutions,
laws,andpolicies.Monitoringdonorpoliciescanalsobereviewed.Butits
notenoughtoenumeratethedierentlaws,policiesandprogramsinplace
(orinprocess).Analyzethelawsandmakeassessments.
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Ingeneral,indicatorsonlegalandpolicyrameworksocusonthreeareas:
the recognition o customary property rights; discriminationpreventing
women and other marginalized groups rom owning land; and legal
provisionsagainstorcedevictions(Bending,2010).TeWorldBankalone,
throughitsLGAF(seeOther Initiatives in the Additional Resources section)has developed targeted indicators or participatory governance process,
closelyexaminingtheparticipationomarginalizedgroupsinormulating
aswellasimplementingvariouslandrameworks.
Bo12:FocusonGender
Despite their contributions to agriculture, womens rights to land are limited. Womenconstitute the biggest minority. Recognizing the need to push or womens land rights, our
monitoring can address gender issues in two ways.
First, we should examine land policies and how they are gender-sensitive. Gender biases
prevail against women. Moreover, discriminatory laws against women orm one o the
biggest challenges to womens access to land. Land policies encompass womens individualright to own land and property, joint land ownership/titling between husband and wie, and
the right to inherit property (Bending, 2010). Does the Constitution recognize womens rightsandprohibitdiscriminationbasedongender?Aretherenationallawstoprotectwomen?But
even where laws and programs explicitly promote womens land rights, the reality may be afarcryfromgenderequity,implyingtheneedformonitoringontheground.
Aside rom the legal ramework, ormal institutions, and customary norms and institutionsmatter, too. Do the ormal institutions (e.g. Ministry o Land Administration; Department o
AgrarianReform;NationalLandAgency)recognizewomensspecialroleintheirprograms?
Second,wecanlookforland-relatedgender-disaggregateddata,whichcanbeappliedto
anyquantitativeindicators.Thisistorecognizethatmenandwomenarenotthesame:their
needs are diferent. We can look at land ownership among male- versus emale-headed
households, or the percentage o women owning land among landowners. Disaggregateddata so ar has tended towards land ormalization (titling and registration) and evictions
(Bending, 2010). However, the reality is that gender-disaggregated data on land are scarce.
Inourownprimarydatagathering,CSOscanfollowgoodpracticeingendersensitivityby
disaggregatingdata.ButCSOsneedtoavoidfallingintothetrapofusingindicatorsofformal
or nominal ownership to represent womens access to land.
Numberofwomenowningland
The absolute number o women who own land and possess land titles.
Percentageofwomenowninglandamonglandowners
The ratio o women who own land over the total number o landowners.
% o landowning women among landowners = Total no. o landowning womenTotal No. o landowners
Since there are only two groups being compared - men and women this is the percentage
o landowning women versus the percentage o landowning men.
Sources:
Bending, Tim. (2010). Monitoring secure access to land: progress and prospects: Land monitoring handbook.Rome: International Land Coalition.
WorldBank,FAOandIFAD.2008. Gender in agriculture Sourcebook. Module 4: Gender issues in land policy
and administration.
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Getting Organized
This section outlines the steps needed to undertake monitoring, oering practical suggestions to
enhance eectiveness and efciency in monitoring.
etting organized takes time. In particular, building a team,
conveningasteeringcommitteeandcreatingpartnershipsrequire
detailedattention.Donotunderestimatethetimeandeortneeded
(FAO,2005).
Organizational Setup
Eachcountryisresponsibleorormingitsownnationalmonitoringteam.rytoinvolveaswideageographicalareaaspossible.oallowormultiple
perspectives,doincludeNGOs,armerorganisations,indigenouspeoples,
andtheacademe.
FirstThingsFirst:Secretariat
A secretariat will be the ocal point or monitoring. Tis can be the
nationalocalpoint,or thenationalocewithapointpersonon topo
monitoring activities. Further, a secretariat responsible or seeing day-
to-day management backstops the steering committee. O course, the
secretariatstacouldalreadybetheexistingstangarrangementsothe
hostorganization/convenerothesteeringcommittee.
WendthatinAsia,aceto acecommunicationisgenerallypreerred.
Nonetheless,wewelcometheuseotechnologybutweemphasisethat
thiscanbedonewhenrolesareclear.
Establishasteeringcommittee
A steering committee (SC) is integral to the success of the monitoring
initiative.YourSCwillprovidedirection,bringotherperspectives,provide
greateraccesstoinormation,acilitatedissemination,andensuresupport.
Composition. Your steering committee should comprise representatives
romtheollowingsectors:
NGOs
Farmersorganizations/indigenouspeoplesorganizations
Researchinstitutions/Academe
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Pilotshaveemphasizedtheneedtoengageresearchinstitutionsandthe
academe,toensurethattheproposedmonitoringrameworkollowssound
methodologiesandacademicrigor,whichmayprovidemorecredibility.
Youmayalsochooseto includemedia,politicalactivists,peasantleaders,
women representatives, IP, and armer activists. Regarding governmentparticipation,pleaseseeBox13.
Criteria.NeverunderestimatetheimportanceofyourSteeringCommittee.
Youshouldcareullyselectthem.Werecommendtheyhavesolidexperience
inlandreormmonitoring,researchandadvocacy.
Size. Formanageability,yoursteeringcommitteeshouldnotexceedten
members.Choosequalityoverquantity.Iyoukeeptoasmallersize,each
memberwillhavemoretimetoarticulatecommentsduringthemeetings.
Do I need a Steering
Committee?
Terearemanygood reasons or
having a Steering Committee. It
works or most organizations.
However,itisnotalwaysnecessary.
For example, in the case o the
AssociationorLandReormand
Rural Development (ALRD) in
Bangladesh, theyhave prominentacademicsworkingonlandissues
in their Board o Directors. A
SteeringCommitteewouldmerely
duplicate a mechanism that they
alreadyhave,inwhichcasetheSC
isunnecessary.
Focalpointsshoulddiscussamong
theirnationalpartnerswhethera
SteeringCommitteewillworkfor
them.
NonethelesstherearedierentmodalitiesyoucantryiftheSCmechanism
doesntworkoryou.
Convening the Steering Committee
You must organize a steering committee inception meeting or that
meeting when you level o on indicators, denition o concepts, data
Bo13:Do I include government?TheRoleofGovernments
In asking whether they should include
governmentinmonitoringortheextent
ofCSOsfearco-option.
Contexts vary rom country to country. It
is ultimately up to you, whether including
agovernmentrepresentativeinyourSCis
strategic, or otherwise.
In the Philippines, or instance,government representatives can be
champions or advocacy (this mayvary according to the government
administration in power). Other countriesarenotasfortunatetheirgovernments
are antagonistic, and monitoring is doneprecisely to call attention to their ailings
and misdeeds.
It may be appropriate that governments
are considered as sources o inormation,rather than members o the steering
committee.
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source,andmethodology.Tisshouldtakeaboutoneweek.Remember
that inall likelihood, yourSteeringCommitteememberswill havevery
tightschedules.Planyourmeetingsasaraheadaspossible,beawareo
holidayswhenscheduling,andsendthemtherelevantdocumentstoreview
aheadotime.Inthisway,youcandevotemoretimetodiscussionduring
themeeting.
ereareconcernsthatgiventheSCsbusyschedule,CSOsshouldcollect
thedatarst,thencalltheSCtoverifythedatagathered.eSCmust
understand their role that even beore data gathering begins, there is
agreementandconsensusonthemonitoringframework.eSCisawayto
gathersupportortheinitiative.
Bepreparedorsomediculties.Forexample,whendierentgroupscome
together,likeactivistsandacademics,youcanexpectthatachievingcommon
agreementsonthedenitionsandindicatorsrelatedwithlandreormwillbechallenging, ortherewill besomepeople dominating thediscussion.
Inthiscase,asourIndonesiancolleagueshavelearned,astrongereortis
neededtoacilitatethediscussion.
Also,itmaybediculttoconvinceSCmembersabouttheimportanceof
thisinitiative.OnetechniqueemployedbytheIndonesiaocalpointis to
personallyvisitandmeetwitheachCSObeforesendingaformalinvite.
Gathering the Data
Te section on Indicators or Monitoring is devoted to dening theindicators used and explaining how togather data or these. Practically
speaking, one or two persons should be on top o the data gathering
exercise.Inanutshell,therangeopossiblesourcesiswide:government,
CSOs,internet,academicjournals, andmedia.Primarydatacanalsobe
gatheredthroughsurveys,interviews,ocusgroupdiscussions.Finally,we
suggestmixingquantitativeandqualitativedata.
Whenmonitoring,alwaysrememberto:
Give a denition or the indicator you are
using.Terearemany,andwhileweoer
ourproposeddenitions,thedataavailable
inyourcountrymaybebasedonadierent
denition.
Cite your source. Give credit where it is
due, even if it isyours! Seesection below
onWriting the Reportonhowtoproperly
acknowledgeyoursource.
Figure 3. Levels of Governmentin Bangladesh
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Cite the reerence year or the data.Itisalwaysimportanttoknowwhen
thedatawasproduced,especiallysincewearetrackingchangesinland
tenureandaccesstoland.
Indicate scale/level o data availability. Televelodatamatters.Data
availabilityvariesanddependsonthespecicindicatorbeingaskedor.
Forexample,ortheindicatoronnumberolanddisputecasesreceived,the datamaybeeasily available (as government ocialjudicial level
data)atthehighcourtleveloratthedistrictlevel.Belowthedistrict
level,datamaynotbeavailableoreasilyaccessiblebutthenumberwill
beveryhigh.Terewillbemorecasesasyougodownthepyramid(see
Figure3),downtothevillagelevel.
Assess your data source. Monitoring is more than a data gathering
exercise.Donotbelieveeverythingyouread!Youhavetoanalyzethe
qualityodatagathered.Doyouhavereservationsorconcernsabout
thedataprovidedsuchasonthemethodologyused?Tenyoumust
statethem. Explain the methodology used.Temethodologyyouusewilldetermine
the kind o results you yield, so it is important to explainhowyou
derivedthedata.
WritingUptheReport
Whatsinit?
Beore you begin,checkAnnex A,whichcontains the suggested outline
forthereport.Startwithanoverviewofthereport,oranintroductionor
context.Itwillsetthetoneorthereport.Writeconcisely.Iyoumeantoprovidereaderswithanunderstandingoagrarianreorminyourcountry,
thenitshouldntbeatenpagehistoryoagrarianreorm.Explainingthe
CSOmonitoring initiative in your country should not be a treatise on
monitoring.Andsoorthandsoon.
Teconceptualrameworkshouldpresenttheindicatorsyouhaveselected,
explain the rationale, process, andscopeand limitations.Youraudience
should be able to clearly understand the ramework that you used or
monitoring.
Temeatoyourreportshouldbeinthesectiononndingsandanalysis.
Here,youdescribethesituationandmakeanassessmentolandreormin
yourcountry,andtrytoteaseoutthetrends,andmakeconnectionsbetween
variablesandindicatorstheircauses,eects,implications.
Cambodia ound that l