Post on 26-Dec-2015
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Classical ConditioningPavlov
Dog is presented with meat powder to make it salivate
Meat powder = Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Salivation = Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A bell is rung before UCS is presented Bell = Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Repetition leads to salivation on hearing the bell before any meat powder is presented
Bell = Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Salivation = Conditioned Response (CR)
Classical ConditioningLittle Albert
Rat is presented to 11 month old boy who plays with it happily
Rat = Neutral Stimulus (NS)Loud steel bar is struck behind Albert’s head
after presenting with rat Loud noise = Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Fear = Unconditioned Response (UCR)
After 5 times, Albert shows extreme fear on presentation of the rat
Rat = Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
BehaviourismBehaviourism is the study of learning
i.e. Observable behaviour
Law of Effect:Behaviour that is followed by consequences
satisfying to the organism will be repeated, and behaviour that is followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
Operant ConditioningBehaviour operates on the environment. All behaviour, internal or external, can be
explained by the environmental consequences it produces
“Stimulus-Response” becomes “Response-Consequence”
Freedom of choice is a myth and all behaviour is determined by the reinforcers provided by the environment
BehaviourismReinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Strengthening a tendency to respond in anticipation of
a pleasant event (reinforcer)Negative Reinforcement
Strengthens a response by removing an aversive eventModeling – e.g. sharing, aggression, fear.
PunishmentCan lead to anxious responses, or be taken as a
reinforcer if followed by a reinforcer E.g. Child may seek punishment or abuse because the
guilty parent may follow it with love
Behavioural TherapyExtinction: Fading out of conditioned
response through appropriate reinforcement
Counterconditioning: Eliciting a new response to a stimulus, using positive reinforcersSystematic Desensitization:
1. Deep muscle relaxation Gradual exposure
Aversive conditioning: Pairing an attractive stimulus with an unpleasant event
Skinner (1948) The Superstitious PigeonEight pigeons received reward every 15 seconds
One bird conditioned to turn counter-clockwise One repeatedly thrust its head into the upper
corner of the cage Pendulum motion “dance” Incomplete pecking movements
Reinforcement interval increased to one minute
Movements became more energeticExtinction
Took up to 10,000 responses before extinction occurred in one case
Skinner (1948)Non-contingent reinforcement
Behaviour is accidentally reinforced leading to a belief in a causal relationship between behaviour and reward
A relationship does still exist between the reward and the subject
Can produce a feeling of strength and control, reduce anxiety, improve performance
Locus of ControlAs a child develops, behaviours are
learned which are followed by some form of reinforcement
Reinforcement increases child’s expectancy that behaviour will produce desired reinforcement
External locus of controlInterpreting consequence as controlled by
luck, fate or powerful othersInternal locus of control
Interpreting ones own behaviour and personality as responsible for consequences
Applied Behaviour AnalysisImproves level of functioning in Mental
Retardation, learning Disabilities and AutismTarget behaviour is reinforced in small levels
(e.g. Eating – picking up spoon, scooping food, moving spoon to mouth, remove with lips etc)
Inappropriate and self-injurious behaviour is reduced (e.g. rocking, swaying, aggression)
Can bring children with severe cases of Autism to basic levels of social functioning by age 7.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbH_jpYlYew
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hulVH9jpR8k
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPWL5yimhyg
Stage 3: 18 months – 4 yearsSecurity in seperateness allows
the child to experiment with their own volition
Conscious self begins to emerge development of the ego
Beginning of control of impulses delayed gratification
Development of language
Stage 3: Language
Sub-units of behaviour (stimulus-response/response-consequence) are organised into patterns/sets Cause & Effect according with
environmentExploration of environment begins
formation of cognitive mapOperant units store in cognitive
mapsAssociated with neural learning
networks (enhanced with stimulation)
Stage 3: Operant Units
A - B - Cwordpicture object
Association of arbitrary units
C - AObject word
Backward associationMost important evolutionary leap in
development of human language which is apparently unique to the human
Stage 3: LanguagePrimary language - images and emotionsCognitive language develops from
associations of arbitrary units, not only by direct teaching
Early associations will be more general, ◦ e.g. “Dog” may become the word for any
external object, or any black object◦ “Dada” may refer to all males
Psychological associations become more complex, arising in logical thought
Memory as we know it may correspond with the development of language, hence people “not remembering” their early years
Stage 3: WillAs identity separates into an
individual unit, the child develops the power to choose their own actions
Action-Consequence I am what I do
Good-bad associations with self (pleasure/ guilt) are controlled by the inner executive (central executive functions)
The right to act in awareness of punishment and obedience ◦E.g. the hot stove
Stage 3: TraumaImproperly restricting the child
may result in decreasing will, thus decreasing spontaneity and confidence
May cause stunting of inner authority – the right to be free
Stage 3: Comparative models
Erikson: Autonomy vs shame and guilt
Reich/Lowen: Masochist (Endurer) structure◦Psychopath challenger-defender
Stage 3: Comparative modelsPiaget: Preoperational
◦Increase in speed of movement and thought
◦Symbolic thought and language development
◦“Magic” thought◦Animism (living objects)◦Egocentric world-view
Stage 3: Comparative models
Freud: Anal stage◦ Toilet training: obsession with the erogenous
zone of the anus with retention or expulsion of feces
◦ Social pressures put on internal pleasure◦ Stubbornness or malicious excretion◦ Anal expulsive character: messy, disorganised,
careless and defiant◦ Anal retentive character: neat, precise, orderly,
careful, with-holding, passive-aggressive◦ Possession and attitudes towards authority
Freud
Freud did not reach his discoveries through a clearly defined scientific methodology
Careful observations of patients over decades of clinical analysis
Many Freudian theories cannot be tested scientifically
Many are proven to be unreliable
Freudian Personality Structure
Id Basic biological urges – hunger, thirst, sexual impulse
Pleasure principle Immediate gratification, regardless of reason, logic,
safety or morality Constantly seeks expression Operates at an unconscious level
Eros and Thanatos
Freudian Theory
Ego Limits and controls the impulses of the id
Reality Principle Alert to the real world (conscious) and the consequences
of behaviour Satisfies id’s urges using rational means which are
reasonably safe and socially acceptable
Freudian Theory
Superego Limits the ego to moral and ethical internalised rules
between good and bad. Instilled by your parents (locus of control) Conscience – controls with guilt Operates on both conscious and unconscious levels
Freudian Theory
The ego tries to balance the needs and urges of the id with the moral requirements of the superego
Psychopathology is an imbalance or malfunction, usually if the demands of the id are too strong to be controlled
Anxiety arises with fear – free-floating anxiety causing the onset of defense mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
Psychological mechanisms to protect against anxiety
Self-deceiving and reality-distorting Repression Regression Projection Reaction Formation Sublimation
Defense Mechanisms
Repression Forcing disturbing thoughts out of consciousness Anxiety associated with “forbidden” thoughts is
avoided – usually sexual desires Hidden conflicts may be revealed through slips of the
tongue, dreams, psychoanalysis, free association or hypnosis
Psychological problems can arise in the form of neuroses
Defense Mechanisms
Regression Ego guards against anxiety by causing the person to
retreat to the behaviour of an earlier stage of development
Earlier speech patterns, childlike behaviour Mid-life crises Going home to mother when there is a marriage
problem
Defense Mechanisms
Projection Unconscious urges are noted in other people’s
behaviour Externalising anxiety-provoking feelings to reduce
anxiety E.g. Husband feeling impulses of being unfaithful may
project his desires onto his wife by becoming insanely jealous and angry
Projections are truly believed
Defense Mechanisms
Reaction Formation “The Lady doth protest too much, me thinks” Engages in behaviours that are the exact opposite of
the id’s real urges Exaggerated or obsessive Complete rejection blocks anxiety E.g. homophobia – gay bashing
Defense Mechanisms
Sublimation Finding socially acceptable ways of discharging
energy that is the result of unconscious forbidden desires
Necessary for a productive and healthy life Through evolution of civilisation, humans sublimate
their primitive biological impulses
Freudian Theory
Ramachandran (1995) examined a neuropsychological cause of repression in paralysed patients Patients who are paralysed on one half of their body
who show repression Always choose impossible two-handed tasks instead of
one-handed tasks Show no disappointment when they fail Vestibular irrigation brought back repressed feelings
in some patients
Freudian Theory
Homophobia Homophobics more aroused by homosexual stimulus
than non-homophobics Under-report their arousal
Anna Freud and others have written extensively on Freudian theory and focused it into scientifically testable areas
ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Attention Deficit: difficulty sitting still (e.g. class/meals)
Hyperactivity: unable to stop moving or talking
Description:
- Disorganised, erratic, tactless, obstinate and bossy- Difficulty getting along with peers and establishing friendships- (in part due to: ) aggressiveness, annoying and intrusive behaviours- different social goals (e.g. sensation seeking over team-work)- Miss social cues (may recognise social cues in cognitive exercises but not in actuality)
3 – 7% of school-age children worldwide
ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
15 – 30% of children with ADHD have a learning disability in math, reading or spelling
Often put in special education because of difficulty with classroom environment
Overlap of 30-90% between ADHD and Conduct Disorder
ADHD is associated with earlier age of onset of Conduct Disorder symptoms
ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
30% of ADHD diagnoses comorbid with internalizing disorders (e.g. Depression and anxiety)
65-80% of children with ADHD still meet criteria for the disorder in adolescence.
Up to 50% of children meet the criteria in adulthood (Rates vary depending on method of assessment)
DIAGNOSIS OF ADHD
1. Predominately Inattentive type2. Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive
type3. Combined type
ETIOLOGY OF ADHD Genetics:
Heritability estimates as high as 70-80% 50% of children from ADHD parents are likely to have it Genetic evidence associated with Dopamine
neurotransmitter
Neurobiology:
Frontal Lobe Dysfunction:
- Lobes are under-responsive, under-sized.- Cerebral blood flow is reduced Tobacco/Nicotine:
- Environmental toxins, food additives, Lead poisoning- Low birth weight and maternal coldness
ETIOLOGY OF ADHD
Psychology: Parent-Child relationships:
- Commanding, negative parents AND less compliant, negative kids- Child behaviour has a negative effect on parents’ behaviour
TREATMENT OF ADHD
Stimulant Medications:- Methylphenidate (MPH)
e.g. Ritalin, Adderall- Reduce disruptive behaviour- Improve concentration and goal-directed activity in 75% of cases- 80% of 11 million prescriptions between 1996-2000 were for children diagnosed with ADHD (problems with diagnosis?)- Side-effects: loss of appetite, sadness, headaches, stomach aches
TREATMENT OF ADHD
Psychological Treatment- Behavioural conditioning (point systems, reward charts, etc)
Combinations most effective cross-culturally
CONDUCT DISORDER(INCLUDING OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER)
Description: - Aggression and cruelty toward people or animals, damaging property, lying and stealing- Callousness, viciousness, lack of remorse Adult antisocial personality disorder
4-16% of boys, 1.2-9% of girlsBehaviour peaks at 17 and reduces in young
adulthood
CONDUCT DISORDER
Life-course Persistent form: shows problems from age 3 into adulthood
Adolescent limited
15-45% comorbidity with Anxiety and Depression
Most likely to occur with parent of low verbal intelligence or antisocial personality disorder
ETIOLOGY OF CONDUCT DISORDER
Genetic: Vague and mixed
MAOA gene – Monoamine Oximade enzyme metabolizes neurotransmitters.
Children who have low MAOA activity AND are maltreated are more likely to develop conduct disorder
ETIOLOGY OF CONDUCT DISORDER
Neurobiological Poor verbal skills Executive functioning (self-control,
planning) Memory problems
ETIOLOGY OF CONDUCT DISORDER
Psychological “Moral Awareness”
Guilt, altruism Physical abuse Reinforcers
Agression reinforced by achieving a goal Interpretation of ambiguous acts as aggressive Peer groups
Harsh and inconsistent parental discipline Sociocultural factors – educational facilities, family
life, neighbourhoods etc