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Running head: Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 1
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow:
Long-term Preservation of Broadcast Television at Archival Standards:
A Content Analysis of Television Production Textbooks
Capstone research project submitted to:
Dr. Mary K. Chelton
Graduate School of Library and Information Studies
CUNY Queens College
by
Ian Bloomfield
ianblmfld6@gmail.com
Flushing, Queens
Fall 2014
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Abstract
This paper reports on a research study undertaken to explore potential resources available
for introducing basic principles of digital preservation to undergraduate television production
students. Seven concepts were identified as basic principles of digital preservation. A
quantitative content analysis was conducted on a convenience sample of television production
textbooks published after the 2009 digital television transition to determine the presence of these
principles. Analysis of the sample found the presence of only one principle, metadata, which
appeared in two of the eight books. The data are not significant enough to draw a conclusion
regarding the larger population of television production textbooks.
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Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Table of Contents 3
List of Tables 5
Chapter 1. The Problem 6
Preserving Digital Television 7
Preservation Research 9
The Research Project 10
Research Value 10
Chapter 2. Literature Review 12
Terminology 12
A Brief History of Television Preservation 13
Commercial Pressures 15
Cultural Assumptions 17
Professionalization Moving Image Archivists 18
Television Research 19
Use of Video in Research 22
Research and the Broadcast Archive 23
Chapter 3. Methodology 26
Phase One: Identifying the Resource 27
Phase Two: Sampling 28
Searching by Subject Heading 30
Selecting the Sample 33
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Phase Three: Defining Basic Principles of Digital Preservation 35
Phase Four: Designing the Research Instrument 37
Phase Five: Steps for Content Analysis 38
Chapter 4. Findings & Analysis 40
Findings 40
Nominal Presence 41
Frequency 41
Distribution 42
Analysis of Findings 44
Research Question #1 44
Research Question #2 44
Chapter 5. Conclusion 46
Achievements 46
Limitations 47
Future Research 47
References 49
Appendix A. Producers Define Producers 55
Appendix B. CUNY production programs 56
Appendix C. National production programs 59
Appendix D. Complete bibliographic information for sample 61
Appendix E. Complete list of digital preservation terminology 63
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List of Tables
Table 1. CUNY Search Results 31
Table 2. CUNY vs. Worldcat 32
Table 3. CUNY Search Results 2010-2014 32
Table 4. CUNY vs. Worldcat, 2010-2014 33
Table 5. Sample: Eight Selected Books 34
Table 6. Digital Terminology Principles by Source 36
Table 7. Basic Principles and Assigned Coding 37
Table 8. Template for Research Instrument 37-38
Table 9. Nominal Presence by Search Location 41
Table 10. Frequency by Search Location 42
Table 11. Distribution by Year of Publication 43
Table 12. Distribution by Series Edition 43
Table 13. Distribution by Subject Heading 43
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Chapter 1. The Problem
The 2009 Digital Television transition signaled the completion of the all-digital television
chain, from program producer to viewer (Rubin, 2009). The history of television archiving
shows that an item’s existence does not guarantee long term survival in high quality condition
(Bryant, 2010). The practices for archiving analog television are unsuitable for the long-term
preservation of digitally produced broadcast programs at archival standards, yet television
producers have been reluctant and slow to incorporate principles of digital preservation into their
workflow (Rubin, 2009).
The development of the Internet has connected programs with interactive websites which
may be updated hundreds of times a day (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010). The broadcasting archive
needs no longer to stand alone at the end of the creative chain, as it can be connected to a
multitude of organizational information streams and workflows (Noordegraaf, 2010).
Seen by many as a panacea, digital production is an imperfect process and the absence of
preservation standards make digitally produced television susceptible to obsolescence and the
loss of metadata (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010). Whether media is born-digital or transferred from
analogue, future access depends on the nature of the original version, methods of storage used
and the availability of software capable of emulating older systems (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010).
Standardization increases interoperability and content exchange, and embedded metadata is key
to managing, using and sustaining assets (Fleischauer, 2010).
Many European public broadcasters have undertaken ambitious projects to make their
archives accessible to the general public (Knapskog, 2010) and from them we gain a
representative example of the ideal digital workflow: the technology used for the production of
digital broadcasting files automatically generates metadata. Production personnel then add
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administrative, legal, technical and content-related metadata as the assets move through the
entire process of production, distribution and re-use. The archive then determines when the
objects and metadata are added to the repository (Noordegraaf, 2010).
This final part of the process highlights a major difference between the European and
American television industries. Television broadcasters in the United States belong to
commercial enterprises rather than heritage institutions, and their archives lack business or
funding models designed to support archival preservation (Wright, 2004). From an archival
view, preserving fragile content necessitates making the highest possible quality copies, as there
may be only one opportunity to replay the content before it completely deteriorates; additionally
many playback machines are no longer manufactured (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010) and require
trained personnel to operate them (Greene, 2007), making preservation work at this level
prohibitively expensive.
As the preservation of broadcast television according to such archival standards does not
generally affect viewing quality, long-term archival preservation of broadcast television is often
considered beyond the mission and scope of the institutions responsible for its production
(Schuller, 2009).
Preserving Digital Television
Preservation of broadcast television begins with collection development. European
countries tend to follow a model of public service broadcasting that provides for archives held in
national institutions or by individual broadcasters such as the BBC. The commercial nature of
the television industry in the United States does not mandate collection and preservation for
public interest. The American model for public broadcasting is also unique, and collection
depends on individual stations or even program producers (Wright, 2009).
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In the spring of 2009, television broadcasters in the United States turned off their analog
transmitters and began broadcasting exclusively on digital channels. That year also saw the
completion of Preserving Digital Public Television, a partnership between PBS, New York
University and public television stations WNET-TV in New York and WGBH-TV in Boston,
developed to explore issues related to building and operating a model repository for digital
video. Funded by the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program
(NDIIP), the project effectively managed to raise awareness of digital preservation and the need
for technical and metadata standards in the television industry. One of the projects goals was to
incorporate digital preservation practices within established television production workflows, to
safeguard born-digital media from issues such as dissociation, migration and obsolescence. Such
an adaptation proved quite difficult to implement with established shows, although success was
reported with the launch of the daily news program WORLDFOCUS, as born-digital source
footage and completed programs were submitted to the repository for long-term preservation
(Rubin, 2009). WORLDFOCUS ceased programming on April 2, 2010 (TV Newser, 2010) and
the degree to which its preservation-minded digital production workflow has been adopted is
unknown at this time.
Preserving Digital Public Television came on the heels of another effort to engage
television producers in a dialogue over long-term preservation that began a decade earlier. In
1999, the Association of Moving Image Archivists (AMIA) launched the Local Television
Project to raise national awareness for the value of preserving television as cultural heritage.
One of the project goals was to hold a symposium on the subject with industry leaders, which
ultimately morphed in to two summits at which the attendees politely expressed their general
interest and requested more information. The challenges and compromises of assembling such
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an event brought to light the incredible pressure and responsibility of meeting the general
requirements of daily programming and the consequence it has on allocating time and funding
for considerations of preservation (Cariani, 2011).
The difficulties that such television preservation projects have faced are very much
rooted in television’s analogue history, throughout which technical limitations, financial and
legal constraints, cultural assumptions and the relatively recent professionalization of moving
image archivists led to the loss, erasure and discarding of hundreds of thousands of programs
from the dawn of broadcast television (Gries, 2010).
Preservation Research
Despite these constraints, broadcasters have amassed vast collections, the majority of
which exist for internal use, providing older footage for recycling or licensing (Noordegraaf,
2010). Access is rarely granted for outside research requests (Prelinger, 2007) and television
scholars often base their research on written source material in lieu of archival broadcast material
(Nordegraaf, 2010). Producers themselves are the focus of an emerging branch of Media Studies
known as Production Studies, which explores the cultural practices of media production (Mayer,
Banks and Caldwell, 2009). The mandate to incorporate digital preservation into production
workflows would not ultimately come from producers but the executives and organizations that
employ them, yet “it is much easier to study labor and to gain access to media production than it
is to study management and gain entrée into corporate suites” (Caldwell, cited in Perren, 2013).
A growing trend across several fields of higher education is the engagement of
undergraduate students with the holdings of special collections and archives (Mitchell, 2012).
Becker (2009) uses meta-assignments to introduce undergraduate film students to the medium’s
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history and preservation; it does not appear that anything been done in this regard with
undergraduate television students.
The Research Project
This paper reports on a research project that explored available resources of potential use
for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within undergraduate television
production curricula. The findings presented are the result of a quantitative content analysis of a
particular resource, television production textbooks produced after the digital television
transition. The study was designed to answer two distinct research questions:
1) Do television production textbooks published since 2010 include basic principles of digital
preservation?
2) Would these texts be useful for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within
undergraduate television production curricula?
This study was undertaken as a capstone project for a graduate course on research in
Library and Information Studies at CUNY-Queens College in Flushing, New York. The
research was conducted from September-December, 2014.
Research Value
The value of this research project has several applications related to the various
disciplines it engages. It can raise overall awareness of the need for digital preservation of born-
digital media, as well as the need to integrate digital preservation into workflows for broadcast
television and digital video. Studies of media production programs, faculty, students and
instructional texts are rare. While “in the digital age, everyone is potentially a media producer”
(Mayer, 2011, p.1), “media studies majors have usually taken an even deeper interest in film and
television texts, both for entertainment and for intellectual edification” (Becker, 2009, p.90).
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These students are putting themselves on a path to becoming the television industry’s future
producers and leaders and, as such, they may represent the archival community’s best and last
option for demonstrating the value of long-term preservation programs.
Insight into incorporating digital preservation into curricula can be valuable to the fields
of information and media literacy, as video and film production, “when considered as something
more than the transmission of basic technical skills or conventions, can be a valuable way of
getting students to think critically about media in general” (Hershfield, & McCarthy, 1997). It
could also encourage the use of archival moving images in the classroom in various capacities.
Through all these applications, this project can be seen as an example of preservation
research that crosses disciplines and communities to analyze specific media and the various
frameworks in which that media is situated (Gilliland, 2014) and provides archivists “insight into
how contemporary media makers work on all levels of production” (Frick, 2014, p.24). The
study identifies a potential audience and opportunity for greater integration of preservation into
core curricula (Nimer & Daines, 2012).
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Chapter 2. The Literature Review
This section presents a review of available literature on topics relevant to the study of archival
preservation of broadcast television. The majority of journal articles and other sources consulted
stem from the fields of Library and Information Studies and Media Studies, and the related fields
of Preservation Studies and Television Studies. The literature review has three sections. The
first section is dedicated to Terminology and will provide definitions of potentially unfamiliar
terms used herein. The second section will provide an historic overview of television
preservation and the development of broadcast archives. Section three will focus on the general
nature of television research and the work that has been done in the areas of and related to library
studies and archival preservation.
Terminology
This paper reports on a research study that is grounded in Library and Information
Studies, specifically the area of Preservation Research. The specific focus of the study, the
television production textbook and its situation in the larger world of television production at the
academic and professional levels have rarely been explored in preservation literature and some
terminology may be unclear. This section will define these terms and attempt to clarify their use
for the purpose of this paper and study.
The often unrecognized job of the producer is difficult to define (Pardo, 2010). The
generally accepted role of television producers is “that of the medium’s chief managers and
artists, with unique understandings of economics and creativity” (Mayer, 2011). Even within the
television industry, this title can have multiple meanings, depending on simple descriptors
attached to it, like Executive Producer or Line Producer, which mark the distinction between one
who is responsible for obtaining financing and concerned with related business (executive
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producer), and one who deals directly with production logistics (Cones, cited in Pardo, 2010).
(See Appendix A for definitions of the role as described by actual producers).
The producer plays a vital role in production. The producer is also a vital part of the
preservation process, although the role is defined somewhat differently from the archival
perspective. In the Open Archival Information System (OAIS) model, a producer is defined as
“the role played by those persons or client systems that provide the information to be preserved.
This can include other OAISes or internal OAIS persons or systems (CCSDS, 2012, p.24).
This paper also frequently mentions the production worfklow. Within the context of
media production, workflow refers to “the technique a production uses for harvesting, logging,
editing and finishing material” (Singleton-Turner, year, p.288).
A Brief History of Broadcast Television Preservation in the United States
Modern broadcasters struggle to provide sufficient justification for supporting or
sustaining long-term preservation efforts within their archives. This practice is very much rooted
in television’s analogue history, throughout which technical limitations, financial and legal
constraints, cultural assumptions and the relatively recent professionalization of moving image
archivists led networks and producers to systematically destroy “at least half of programming
produced well into the 1960s” (Einstein and Vianello, cited in Collins, 2010)
The mechanical capture of sound and moving images has posed preservation problems
since the inception of the technology at the end of the 19th century, beginning with the
combustible nature of early film (Greene, 2007). The early history of television archiving very
much duplicated that of cinema through loss, neglect and casual destruction (Noordegraaf,
2010). The primary factor in the loss of early television broadcasts is that television is a medium
across which content can be transmitted but is not itself a carrier of content. Early television was
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broadcast live and could not be recorded until 1947, when kinescope recordings were made by
placing a film camera in front of a television screen and capturing the broadcast (Noordegraaf,
2010).
In April, 1956, the first prototype professional videotape recorders, using two-inch
magnetic tape, were demonstrated at the National Association of Broadcasters Convention
(Greene, 2007). On July 24, 1959, the Kitchen Debate between Vice President Nixon and Nikita
Khrushchev became the first videotape received by the Library of Congress (Spehr, 2013). The
use of professional videotape in the early 1960s was a double-edged sword for the preservation
of broadcast television. While on one hand providing the technology to keep records of
broadcasts at a better quality than film, videotape was not seen as a long term format; at the
same time the potential re-use of tapes was an appealing measure of efficiency and cost-
effectiveness, and so, many tapes were erased and re-used (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010).
In 1975, Ampex introduced commercial videotape, followed by Electronic Industries
Association of Japan’s open reels and U-matic cassettes (Murphy, 2011). While this lowered the
cost of recording and making duplicate copies of broadcasts, it also created storage issues. The
Library of Congress reported that acquisition almost doubled in the first year post-release
(Schreibman, 1991). Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, local television stations and network
affiliates viewed discarding entire collections of local news film, tape, and VTRs as a low-cost
storage solution (Compton, 2007). In this period, stations also excised film equipment and
developing labs (Schreibman, 1991); the sheer volume of materials was overwhelming, and
“from the stations’ point of view, tossing it was often easier than saving it” (Cariani, 2011,
p.139).
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The variety and inevitable obsolescence of recording formats and playback equipment
has brought considerable technical difficulties to the preservation of television (Noordegraaf,
2010). The economic, portable and fragile U-Matic cassette has become a highly endangered
format chiefly because it was never designed to be stored long term (Compton, 2007). These
losses are considered acceptable, as the industry relies on planned obsolescence to drive the
profits of selling new technologies (Davies, 2010).
When digital file formats were introduced in the 1990s, commercial pressures, most
notably the cost of digital storage space, led producers of professional and home video
recordings to adopt the widespread use of compressed, proprietary production formats over open,
uncompressed options optimal for long-term preservation. From a broadcast perspective, the
choice was not difficult, as compressed formats do not greatly affect viewing quality (Schuller,
2009). Despite the recent development of MJPEG 2000 as an archival target format and
reductions in storage costs, television archives have not significantly altered their practices
(Schuller, 2009).
Commercial Pressures
Beyond the challenges of technology, broadcast archives face a distinct economic
imperative. Unlike textual records, the preservation of broadcast media “requires an investment
of millions of dollars in equipment and trained personnel” (Greene, 2007), and the archives
themselves require both institutional settings and architectural sites and space (Spigel, 2010).
Media mergers, changes in corporate ownership and corporate identities can severely hamper the
consistent maintenance of television archives as well (Davies, 2010).
Producers must also account for important legal considerations that also affect
preservation efforts. An early argument against the recording of broadcasts was “union concerns
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about repeats displacing new output and therefore reducing work for cast and crew” (Perry and
Coward, 2010, p.49). Producing television programming involves contracts and licensing
agreements with a variety of individual and organizations throughout the creative chain; in their
early years, a primary use of broadcast archives was to aid in the response of subpoenas
(Schreibman, 1991).
The issue of copyright has arguably had the most dramatic impact on broadcasters’
inclination to preserve materials. In 1968, the CBS network sued Vanderbilt University for
breach of copyright, based on a Vanderbilt project that recorded news broadcasts aired during the
year’s presidential election campaign. The eventual resolution of this case in the next decade
would have a radical effect on moving image preservation, though at the time the conflict was
somewhat ironic considering that the Department of Defense was doing virtually the same thing
with its own kinescoping of network news stories concerning the Vietnam War (Schreibman,
1991).
The 1976 Copyright Act resolved the Vanderbilt case by establishing a major revision in
U.S. copyright law that “encouraged taping off-air taping of hard news broadcasts” (Murphy,
2011, p.105). The Library of Congress also now had the power to require deposits of works,
making significant productions available for scholarly access (Schreibman, 1991).
Modern program broadcast rights often last five years or less, with rights associated for
uses after broadcast often absent (Rubin, 2009), specifically regarding repeats or extended
distribution (Nelson & Cooke, 2010). Third party rights regarding scriptwriters, music and
other contributing entities all require clearance (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010). Additionally, the
source material used in programs may have attached rights. This complex array attaches a
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significant financial and legal investment just to make programs viewable more than once
(Rubin, 2009).
Cultural Assumptions
From their beginnings, television archives have been very much mired in an argument
over the cultural value of the medium, both as a record and an art form (Spigel, 2010) As early
television was broadcast live, it was considered an extension of the theatre and regarded as
ephemeral media (Kavanagh and Lee, 2010). Producers were not convinced that the value of
their property was worth the cost of storage (Collins, 2010), though they eventually saw fit to
make regular use of films held by the Library of Congress in popular productions such as
Victory at Sea when available (Spehr, 2013). Failure to appreciate the cultural significance of
television has led to a “gradualist and selective approach to documentation and preservation”
(Perry and Coward, 2010, p.49). An example of this has been the prioritization of preserving oft-
requested sports footage over quiz shows and soap operas (Noordegraaf, 2010).
Broadcasters have not been alone in failing to see the social value of their assets. Though
the Library of Congress received its first television program submitted for copyright in 1949
(Murphy, 2011), it did not actively seek to collect television until the mid-1960s, due simply to
low regard (Spigel, 2010). For many of these years, the Library of Congress deemed that a
single sample program was considered sufficiently representative for broadcasts in series (Spehr,
2013).
In 1966, the NEA administered a planning study that produced the Stanford Report,
which endorsed a national initiative “to foster the art and preserve the heritage of film and
television in America.” This laid the groundwork for establishing the American Film Institute in
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1967 and the subsequent launch of its archival program in 1968, but a comparable television-
oriented institute did not follow (Murphy, 2011). In 1997, the Library of Congress published a
five-volume Study of the Current State of American Television and Video Preservation, based on
testimony from television pioneers, archivists, and scholars (Compton, 2007). In response to the
report, the Library abdicated all responsibility for television preservation at a national level,
decreeing that such a foundation should be strictly a separate and private sector entity (Horak,
2012). According to Horak (2012), a group of private individuals founded the National Film and
Video Preservation Foundation. Attempts to document this organization’s current activities
indicate that they have ceased operations.
Modern broadcast archives are not far removed from any of the challenges related to their
history. Television archivists are continually occupied with managing the volumes of material in
their care, held in varying and deteriorating formats while vying for funding for preservation
activities and staff resources in the face of legal, commercial, and technological flux (Collins,
2010).
Professionalization Moving Image Archivists
An additional historic challenge to the preservation of television is purely functional. In
early days, “entertainment production companies did not even think of anyone’s responsibilities
being archival” (Schreibman, 1991, p.90). Starting in the late 1960s and continuing throughout
the 1970s, the field of people charged with such responsibilities grew dramatically, spurred by
the use of videotape for education and documentation as well as entertainment, as the
standardized cassette was now the major distribution medium for industrial video, educational
programming and independent producers (Murphy, 2011). In 1977, the Motion Picture Section
and the Recorded Sound Collection of the Library of Congress were combined to form the
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Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division. This new division’s head, Erik
Barnouw, recognized the need for a forum to allow moving image archives and archivists to
work together and share information. When the growing number of working television archivists
was still deemed too small to be a committee in the Society of American Archivists, Barnouw
organized a television archives conference for North American television archivists from non-
profits and networks (Schreibman, 1991). The group was named the Television Archives
Advisory Committee (TAAC), in deference to its predecessor, the Film Archives Advisory
Committee (FAAC) (Murphy, 2011).
The number of individuals and institutions preserving moving image materials continued
to grow into the mid-80s (Shay, 2011), at which point FAAC and TAAC were “inextricably
intertwined” (Murphy, 201. p.106). In 1990, the two groups joined together to form the
Association for Moving Image archivists (Murphy, 2011).
The professional development of television archivists has further developed with the
establishment of degree-granting programs. The first moving image preservation program in the
United States was the Jeffrey L. Selznick School of Film Preservation at the George Eastman
House, established in 1996. Two more programs followed in the next decade at UCLA and
NYU (Schaefer, 2007).
Television Research
It was not that long after television was introduced that institutions outside the broadcast
archives began developing their own collections for research. In 1958, the Mass
Communications History Center of the Wisconsin Historical Society, at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison, began with the donation of NBC’s records for preservation (Hilmes, 2010).
The Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (ATAS) followed suit, with plans for a never-
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constructed “television library as early as 1959 to assure good industry wide public relations
through public service efforts” (Spigel, 2010, p.55). Today, the ATAS collection remains on
loan to UCLA (Spigel, 2010), which began to collect television programs in 1965 and is now the
nation’s second-largest collection (Schreibman, 1991)). In 1976, William Paley founded the
Museum of Broadcasting (known today as the Paley Center) in New York City; though not
technically an archive, as its holdings are for the most part copies received from other archives, it
was the first of these institutions to expand access to past television programs beyond scholars to
the general public (Schreibman, 1991).
In 1990, the National Public Broadcasting Archives, housed at the University of
Maryland (Cariani, 2011), began as a cooperative effort among several broadcasting
organizations and educational institutions including the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the
Public Broadcasting Service, National Public Radio, Academy for Educational Development and
the University of Maryland to preserve the history of public broadcasting in America (King,
2008, p.59)
Scholars interested in researching television have faced many of the same challenges that
broadcasters have in preserving it. From a technological perspective, planned obsolescence is
“extremely inconvenient” for the researcher (Davies, 2010, p.36). Free and open access can
poses legal logistics for certain copyrighted material, and is insupportably expensive in archives
that are understaffed and lack the equipment to provide screenings or make service copies
available (Prelinger, 2007).
Researchers working with an institution for access to older TV material must be prepared
for compromise (Compton, 2007), as “even those who find creative ways to obtain access still
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struggle to get past the public relations arms of major companies and to secure detailed, accurate
data” (Perren, 2013, p.168).
In attempting to reconstruct an audiovisual record of then-Vice President Dan Quayle’s
criticism of the fictional television character Murphy Brown, Ubois (2006) found that copyright
prevented access to both Quayle’s speech and the desired episode of the show. Collins (2010)
had equal difficulty locating both episodes and original scripts for a study of the sitcom, All in
the Family.
Cultural assumptions have also hindered research on television. Through the mid-60s,
the scholarly community generally held the same position as the Library of Congress regarding
television's social and historical significance (Spigel, 2010). Among the more well-known
condemnations of the alleged ‘boob tube’ slash ‘idiot box’ is Newton Minow’s refrain of ‘the
vast wasteland’ (Gray & Lotz, 2012). Today, television’s role in our personal and national
heritage is widely recognized (Jacobs, 2006) and, ironically, communications scholars are
fascinated with the way television shapes contemporary culture (Meyer, 2012).
None of these factors have been much of a bother to practitioners of Media Studies, the
branch of academia to which Television Studies generally belongs, as both fields share “a
penchant for the new and the now” (Bodroghkozy , 2011, p.188-189). An emergent subset of
both fields is the area of Production Studies, which broadens the traditional view of producers to
include undervalued and invisible below-the-line production workers whose work can be studied
in the context of the larger communities to which they belong (Mayer, 2011). Though Roberts
(2011) considers this a “rather traditional anthropological methodology” that “overstates the
importance of human agency and individuality in a process which is far more complex and in
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fact rather faceless”, it is not a radical departure from some of the seminal works in the field,
such as Rosten’s (1941) study of the regulation and remuneration of individuals employed in the
film industry, Powdermaker’s (1950) anthropological study of the film industry and Gitlin’s
(1983) quasi-ethnography of the commercial television industry in the United States (Miller,
2002).
Rare instances have allowed for analyses of production provided by those actually
involved in the production process: Bird’s (2009) analysis of the restoration of The Cat and
the Canary and Plasketes (1988) case study of post-production on Paul Simon’s Graceland
in Africa offer tremendous insight into the interaction and decision-making process present
during and throughout the various stages of production.
Studies of production programs, faculty, students and texts have been less frequent.
Becker (2009) finds that media students’ enthusiasm for their chosen subject matter poses an
obstacle in the way of “preconceived and sometimes even problematic assumptions about how
media texts work”. Bodroghkozy (2011) asserts that a significant percentage of media textbooks
“seem to assume undergraduates would rather look at lots of pictures broken up by bite-sized
pieces of text” (Bodroghkozy , 2011 p.193).
Use of Video in Research
Meyer (2012) sees the future of critical television studies in its ability to cross methods
and boundaries and there is no shortage of such crossings. Video documents are used as research
documents ethnomusicology, anthropology, dance and ritual studies and linguistics (Schuller,
2009, p.6). Information literacy has a well-developed history of practice within librarianship
(Haras & Sterling, 2011) and media literacy, a corollary to information literacy (Haras &
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Sterling, 2011) is a necessary and common practice for providing young people with the basic
tools to understand media’s impact (Domine, 2011). Otto (2014) found that video may be
superior to textual materials for learning complex skills with faculty in a variety of disciplines
considering it a crucial component of their coursework.
Research and the Broadcast Archive
In the past decade, it was commonplace to pronounce the death of television in the wake
of new media (Gray & Lotz, 2012). Though “no major communications medium has ever been
completely supplanted by a later one” (Davies, 2010, p46), television certainly now finds itself
situated as “the newest of the ‘old media’ in Media Studies” (Bodroghkozy, 2011 p.189).
This repositioning of television along the historical spectrum has led to increased interest
in archival television material from scholars in disciplines outside Media Studies (Davies, 2010).
Broadcast materials have added value as historical sources because they both document historical
events and the history of broadcasting itself (Noordegraaf, 2010). Beyond program content,
broadcast archives possess a wide variety of material of potential interest to a broad spectrum of
scholars, including scripts, sets, costumes, equipment, production photographs, and program
schedules (Noordegraaf, 2010), as well as “advertisements, continuity material and program
captions” (Perry and Coward, 2010,p.48). Additionally, “the BBC conducted its own audience
research from the late 1930s onwards” (Kavanagh & Lee, 2010, p.69).
While in some academic circles “Television Studies still carries markers of ‘the bad
object’” (Bodroghkozy, 2011 p.189), archivists generally do not suffer from this syndrome
(Compton, 2007). Many archival scholars approach these materials with an attitude that in some
ways parallels the context-driven mission of production studies. Kavanagh & Lee (2010) stress
the importance of understanding the social, political and cultural context as well as the working
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 24
environment of program makers at any given time. Sutherland (2010) expands the concept
beyond producers as a means of understanding the identities of the parent institutions and
organizations themselves.
Some scholars have eschewed the contents of broadcast archives in favor of studying the
archives themselves. Connors (2000) studied how an institutional archive handled content
produced for a national broadcasting schedule, citing the following evaluation criteria as part of
an interpretive process: provenance, cost of retention, consideration of copyright and intellectual
property, reference potential and critical values such as production value, popularity, information
content and completeness. Ide & Weisse’s (2003) case-study of Boston’s WGBH showcased the
development of an appraisal and selection process at the level of local content and station-
specific care that “focuses on identifying the "added value" components inherent in broadcast
masters and supporting production elements,” as “these components both qualify and quantify
the selection process” (p.156). Spigel (2010) explored the dichotomy between the futuristic
architecture of the buildings that house audiovisual archives and the nostalgic bent of their
collections.
Broadcast archives themselves have also been the source of scholarly research. WGBH
built a prototype catalog to study the needs of academic researchers and found that scholars do
indeed form a special needs group (Michael, Todorovic & Beer, 2009).
In 1997, Librarian of Congress James Billington lamented that the lack of systematic
television preservation ensures that “future scholars will have to rely on incomplete evidence
when they assess the achievements and failures of our culture” (Compton, 2007).
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 25
Gracy & Kahn’s (2012) content analysis of research and professional literature on
preservation-related topics published in 2009 and 2010, found that the audiovisual literature
tends to focus on case studies of preservation and restoration.
Certainly, all is not lost; the major networks have employed proprietary systems for
dealing with their archives and digital assets (Carter, 2006) and the chances of anything
significant failing to survive are slim (Bryant, 2010). Cheaper digital storage has allowed
archives to collect more content than ever before, and broadcasters like NBC and PBS provide
online access to popular assets (Noordegraaf, 2010). Web services such as YouTube, where
most uploads are blithely unconcerned by questions of ownership and standards, provide access
to a plethora of material while linking contributors and users in increasingly complex social
networks (Prelinger, 2007). However, as such sources inevitably offer poor video quality,
incomplete episodes and series and potential risk, they are not optimal solutions for gaining
access to historical video for scholarly purposes (Collins, 2010).
The release of full television series on DVD allows for detailed, lengthy single-series
monographs on programs such as I Love Lucy, Bewitched, Miami Vice and The
Sopranos (Thorburn, 2011), but DVD release decisions are based on market demand, not
scholarly interest or research value (Collins, 2010); “there are still many television shows that
are difficult or impossible to find” (Collins, 2010, p.125) and, if scholars write only about the
programs that are available on DVD or currently being broadcast, they miss out on most of
television's history (Compton, 2007).
The various inflexible ways early digital video has been preserved (Schuller, 2009), the
loss of metadata needed to determine an object’s meaning (Noordegraaf, 2010), and the
perpetual lack of resources for processing and cataloguing will ensure that certain at-risk and rare
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 26
materials “become further buried -- either in archives or in media companies' non-priority, non-
lucrative backlog” (Collins, 2010, 122-123), as echoes of Billington’s lament are heard in future
attempts to use these materials for research purposes.
Chapter 3. Methodology
Recent studies in preservation research have explored ways of integrating archives and
special collections into undergraduate education, with a key focus on student learning, as part of
the broader mission of expanding the value proposition of libraries (Yakel & Daniels, 2013).
Nimer & Daines (2012) detailed how current models of archival instruction were applied to
create content in an undergraduate course designed to develop archival literacy skills. Bastian,
Cloonan and Harvey (2011) describe a course in the Digital Curriculum Laboratory at Simmons
College in which students are challenged with formulating a preservation plan for a variety of
obsolete media. Daniels & Yakel (2013) explored learning impacts that occur via exposure to
the archive to evaluate preservation programs and activities at the undergraduate and graduate
level.
This paper reports on the findings of a study aimed to explore available resources of
potential use for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within undergraduate
television production curricula. A quantitative content analysis of a particular resource -
television production textbooks - was conducted to gather the study’s data. The sample included
texts published after the 2009 Digital Television transition, from the years between and inclusive
of 2010 and 2014.
The project was designed as an extensive study to discover common properties or
patterns that hold within a population. Two distinct research questions were identified:
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 27
1) Do television production textbooks published since 2010 include basic principles of digital
preservation?
2) Would these texts be useful for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within
undergraduate television production curricula?
In designing the study, five distinct phases were deemed necessary to answer these
research questions. Phase One identified the particular type of resource to be measured for
analysis. Phase Two specified rules and operations for selecting and acquiring the sample.
Phase Three defined basic principles of digital preservation. In Phase Four, the research
instrument was designed. Phase Five determined the number and order of steps needed for
measuring and recording the data gathered from the sample.
Phase One: Identifying the Resource
This project was undertaken as a capstone project for a graduate course on research in
Library and Information Studies at CUNY-Queens College in Flushing, NY from September-
December, 2014. As a requirement of the course was to complete the project in one semester, it
was necessary to select a resource that could be acquired and analyzed in a timely manner. In
their analysis of introductory archives courses, Bastian & Yakel (2006) made use of directories
published by the Society of American Archivists, the National Council on Public History, and
the American Historical Association, to compile a list of schools and departments that offered
some degree of archival education, and then studied these programs based on groupings, course
groupings, syllabi and course readings. There are no such comprehensive directories for
undergraduate television production programs. Without such a list, it would not have been
possible to both research and select programs and request or search for syllabi and course
groupings in the time allotted for the project. The process of reviewing research literature for the
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 28
project led to the discovery of Connor & Rice’s (2012, in Mitchell, et al.) work in developing the
American History Textbook Project. This inspired the selection of television production
textbooks as the project’s resource for analysis.
Phase Two: Sampling
Having determined that television production textbooks were a suitable resource for
analysis within the scope of the project, a sample of textbooks needed to be identified. As it was
not possible to locate an authoritative source to define the sampling frame of all television
production textbooks produced since 2010, it was decided to use non-probability sampling. In
addition to covering television production as subject matter, it was desired that the texts be
known to be used for instruction in undergraduate production curricula. While a more extensive
study could have determined this with a greater degree of precision, it was reasoned that
placement within an academic library was acceptable in lieu of this knowledge.
The matter of time was still a consideration as well, and all of these factors led to the
decision to search exclusively in the City University of New York (CUNY) library catalog. Such
a limitation would allow for a manageable and representative sample in a single environment
(Otto, 2014). Other factors favored use of the CUNY catalog as well. CUNY is the third-largest
university system and the largest urban university in the United States (CUNY, 2014.) The
university’s television station, CUNY TV, is the largest of its kind in the country (CUNY TV,
2014) and has incorporated the archive and digital preservation into a degree of its production
workflow (D. Rice, personal communication, February, 2014). Thirteen institutions within the
CUNY system offer programs and degrees with some component of television and video
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 29
production programs, including twenty-four at the undergraduate level (see Appendix B for the
full list of CUNY production programs by schools, departments, and degrees offered).
According to the National Center for Education’s College Navigator, there are
approximately one hundred ninety undergraduate television production programs in the United
States (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). Comparison of this figure to CUNY’s
offerings cannot be offered, as it is difficult to discuss television production as an undergraduate
major in such relative terms. Television programs find themselves situated in a myriad of
paradigms, as subsets of Communications, Media Studies or in hybrid programs, juxtaposed with
related disciplines such as Journalism or some combination Film and Video (see Appendix C for
a list of related programs and majors found using two online databases, the National Center for
Education’s College Navigator and Peterson’s College Bound). The evolution of the name for
the Paley Center mirrors this phenomenon. Upon its erection in 1975, it was known as the
Museum of Broadcasting. In 1991, it was renamed the Museum of Television and Radio. This
moniker lasted until 2008, when the onset of digital convergence became the Paley Center for
Media (Schreibman, 1991).
CUNY uses a diverse matrix of such combinations in naming production related
programs. One CUNY program, Lehman College, changed a program name during the course of
the study, splitting the defunct “Multi-media Studies major” into two new programs, Film and
TV Studies and Media Communications Studies (Lehman College, 2014). Though it is not
possible to accurately demonstrate what portion CUNY’s offerings represent of the total number
of programs nation-wide, without exploring individual program descriptions, the CUNY system
appears to offer a substantial degree of production curricula to justify analyzing textbooks held in
its catalog for the purposes of this study.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 30
With these determinations made, it was possible to define a set of rules and operations for
the selection of a convenience sample for analysis. The rules and operations for inclusion in the
sample were as follows:
A) Belonging to a CUNY library
B) Listed under the Library of Congress subject headings Television, Production and Direction
and Video Recordings, Production and Direction
C) Judged eligible by their bibliographic authority records
D) Available through interlibrary loan
Searching by Subject Heading. A challenge in searching for television
production texts is the lack of a controlled vocabulary for the subject. When the field of
archivists working in both the film and television sectors collectively mobilized to form the
AMIA in 1991 (Murphy, 2011), the more-inclusive term Moving Images was introduced, yet
authority subject headings do not reflect this shift. The Library of Congress authority heading
for television production is Television -- Production and direction. One challenge this presents is
the combination of two discrete job functions. While producer slash directors do exist, and are
of great appeal to production companies for their willingness to work at a premium (Blumenthal
and Goodenough, 1998), it takes deliberate effort to search specifically for only one or the other
as a subject. The inclusive nature of this subject heading adds a second challenge, as it allows
for the inclusion of texts that may have some connection with television but have little to do with
either role. For example, while searching under this heading in Worldcat, with all Advanced
Search filters applied, the database still retrieved a record for the autobiography of a reality
television performer, likely because this figure is listed in-name as one of the show’s many
producers.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 31
A third challenge in searching for television production texts lies in the semantic
difference between the medium through which content is broadcast, i.e. television, and the
media on which it is recorded, stored and preserved - video. It is expected that any television
production text is going to include some consideration of video. Video is used to record a wide
variety of content produced for distribution across a number of platforms, including television,
and as such, has its own Library of Congress authority heading, Video recordings -- Production
and direction. The intertwining of these two headings can lead to great cross-over in
bibliographic records, as many video texts cover aspects of television production. As many
modern “films” are actually shot on video, this phenomena is similarly perpetuated within the
third moving image related Library of Congress subject heading, Motion pictures -- Production
and direction. Early searches for a fourth related subject heading, Digital video -- Production
and direction, yielded a preponderance of results related to web applications and graphic design.
For these reasons, the last two subject headings, Motion pictures -- Production and direction and
Digital video -- Production and direction, were deemed beyond the scope of the study, as cross-
over would most likely disregard television production.
Table 1 shows the total number of results found in the CUNY catalog based on the two subject
headings, Television -- Production and direction and Video recordings -- Production and
direction.
Table 1
Subject Heading search results, CUNY catalog
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 32
Television, Production and
direction
Video recordings, Production and
direction
Total
203 136 339
Table 2 compares the total results yielded by the CUNY catalog in comparison to the
same subject heading search using Worldcat.
Table 2
Subject heading search results, CUNY and Worldcat catalogs.
Subject Heading CUNY Worldcat
Television, Production and Direction
203 1365
Video Recordings, Production and Direction
136 784
Total 339 2149
Table 3 shows the search results for the same subject headings in the CUNY catalog,
inclusive of the years 2010-2014.
Table 3
Subject Heading search results, CUNY catalog, 2010-2014
Year Television, Production and
direction
Video recordings,
Production and direction
Total
2014 0 2 2
2013 5 0 5
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 33
Year Television, Production and
direction
Video recordings,
Production and direction
Total
2012 2 4 6
2011 2 9 11
2010 2 4 6
Total 11 19 30
Table 4 depicts the subject heading search results for 2010-2014 in the CUNY catalog as
compared to the same search in Worldcat.
Table 4
Subject Heading search results, 2010-2014, CUNY and Worldcat catalogs.
Subject Heading CUNY Worldcat
Television, Production and direction
11 171
Video recordings, Production and direction
19 117
Total 30 288
Absent an authoritative list of television production textbooks published in the past five
years, comparing search results between the CUNY and Worldcat catalog does not provide a
definitive demonstration of CUNY’s relative representation of the overall population, but it does
provide a relative perspective on the holdings of the CUNY catalog with regards to the sample.
Selecting the Sample. After searching the CUNY catalog under the appropriate
subject headings and filtering the results by publication date, all bibliographic records were
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 34
inspected to ensure the texts covered relevant subject matter. Eight books were then identified as
suitable for inclusion in the sample, as listed in Table 5. The list is divided equally but subject
headings, with four representations of each included. Three of the textbooks were published in
the years 2013 and three in 2010, with one each from the years 2011 and 2012 (See Appendix D
for complete bibliographic information on the sample, including publisher, edition, lending
library and related production program).
Table 5
Textbooks selected for analysis.
Title Author(s) Year Subject Heading
Cue & Cut: A Practical Approach to Working in Multi-Camera Studios
Singleton-Turner 2011 Television Production and Direction
Mastering MultiCamera Techniques: From Preproduction to Editing and Deliverables
Jacobson 2010 Video Recordings, Production and Direction
Producing and Directing the Short Film and Video
Rea, Irving 2010 Video Recordings, Production and Direction
Television Production Owens, Millerson 2013 Television Production and Direction
Television Production & Broadcast Journalism
Harris 2012 Television Production and Direction
Video Basics 7 Zettl 2013 Television Production and Direction
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 35
Title Author(s) Year Subject Heading
Video Production Handbook Owens, Millerson 2013 Video Recordings, Production and Direction
Video Shooter: Storytelling with HD Cameras
Braverman 2010 Video Recordings, Production and Direction
Acquisition of the individual textbooks from their respective lending libraries via
interlibrary loan posed no issues or complications and the project proceeded on the design of the
research instrument.
Phase Three: Defining Basic Principles of Digital Preservation
The definition of digital preservation and associated conceptual terms is a subject of
debate within the preservation field (Cloonan, 2014). Bastian, Cloonan, & Harvey (2011)
analyzed online documentation of courses in digital preservation, curation, and stewardship to
characterize the nature of current preservation pedagogy and found that a core literature had not
yet been identified or developed. Costello (2010) mapped the syllabi contents of digital
preservation courses offered by twenty-six schools against terms from the matrix of digital
curation knowledge and competencies developed by the DigCCurr Project at the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, to determine the terms that appeared most frequently (cited in
Bastian et al., 2011). That study was related to the broader concepts of digital curation and
digital stewardship. For this project, a more basic list of principles related to digital preservation
was desired, and as no similar studies could be found, it was decided to build a proprietary list.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 36
To develop this list, four online sources offering definitions of digital preservation
terminology were researched. The four sources are the Library of Congress’ National Digital
Stewardship Alliance, the Digital Preservation Coalition, the American Library Association and
the University of Michigan Libraries. These sources were analyzed to develop a comprehensive
list of discrete terms and definitions listed on all four sites, and then measured in comparison to
one another to determine the frequency of all terms across the sources (See Appendix E for the
complete list of definitions). This method is based on the assumption that a high degree of
frequency indicates that the term can be considered a basic principle of digital preservation, as
opposed to advanced concepts that would appear in archival-centric sources, especially those
committed to preserving television and other moving images.
Variations of terms, such as “migration” and “format migration” were counted as one
term. Terms with larger sub-headings, such as metadata and its’ variations technical metadata,
descriptive metadata, et al., were also counted as one term in the broader sense. In all, sixty-one
discrete terms were identified across the four sources, shown in Table 6.
Table 6
Number of terms per source.
Source # of Terms
National Digital Stewardship Alliance
42
Digital Preservation Coalition
17
American Library Association
23
University of Michigan Libraries
13
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 37
Four terms were found to appear in each source: digital preservation, emulation,
metadata, and migration. Three terms appeared on three sites: migration, provenance and
refreshing. Sixteen terms appeared twice, and thirty-eight appeared once. The seven terms
which appeared with the highest frequency were: digital preservation, emulation, metadata,
migration, provenance and refreshing.
Phase Four: Designing the Research Instrument
The study’s chosen method for data collection was to use existing documents as data. To
measure these documents, a research instrument was developed in the form of a checklist of
seven terms associated with digital preservation that were deemed as basic principles. These
principles were each assigned a code that would function as the recording units for content
analysis, shown in Table 7.
Table 7
Basic principles and assigned codes.
Principle Coding
Born digital BD
Digital preservation
DP
Emulation EM
Metadata MD
Migration MI
Provenance PR
Refreshing RF
To complete the design of the research instrument, the codes were then incorporated into
a template that would be used for the quantitative analysis of each individual element (Table 8).
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 38
Table 8
Research Instrument Template
TEXTBOOK(Title, Year)
Coding Glossary Index Table of Contents
Chapter Entry
BD
DP
EM
MD
MI
PR
RF
The recording units were Y for Yes and N for No. Positive mentions were indicated by a Y. If
the term was not mentioned, that was represented by an N.
Phase Five: Steps for Content Analysis
Completion of the first four phases of the project’s methodology resulted in the
identification a resource for analysis, selection of a sample for measurement, the definition of
basic principles of digital preservation and the design of a research instrument for measuring
such principles in the sample. The final phase in designing the study was to determine the
procedure for conducting the content analysis. It was decided that this would be carried out in
three steps:
1) Nominal measurement of coded terms.
2) Nominal measurement of frequency of coded terms.
3) Cross-reference with bibliographic information for nominal measurement of term distribution.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 39
The first step classified the raw data by simply recording the presence of the terms in
each of four possible locations: tables of contents, individual chapters and/or chapter entries,
glossaries and indices. It was decided to identify the mentions in the broadest possible context
first, and then work towards more specific contexts. The locations and their context were ranked
as follows:
Glossary
Index
Table of Contents
Chapter Entry
In the second step of the content analysis, the terms were tallied to determine their
frequencies and relative distribution. For terms appearing in the index, the number of mentions
was counted.
Step three saw the frequencies and distributions of the mentions cross-referenced with
the bibliographic information recorded in the selection of the sample. Key factors of interest
were the publication date and level of edition (first, second, et al). If the term was included in
the glossary, the definition was recorded. Entries appearing in tables of content were described
in terms of the total number of sections and chapters that comprised the book. If the term was a
chapter entry, as opposed to the topic of the chapter, the placement of the entry relative to the
overall structure of the chapter was recorded.
After completing these three steps, a fourth step was added to the analysis involved to
account for contextual information regarding the use of these principles that was deemed
noteworthy. All findings were then validated and are presented in the following section.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 40
Chapter 4. Findings and Analysis
This section reports on the findings of a study aimed to explore available resources of
potential use for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within undergraduate
television production curricula. A quantitative content analysis of a particular resource -
television production textbooks - was conducted to gather the study’s data. The project was
designed as an extensive study to discover common properties or patterns that hold within a
population. The goal of this study was to answer two distinct research questions:
1) Do television production textbooks published since 2010 include basic principles of digital
preservation?
2) Would these texts be useful for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within
undergraduate television production curricula?
To answer these questions, the quantitative content analysis conducted on a convenience
sample of eight television production textbooks published since 2010. The research instrument
was designed to determine the presence of coded terms previously defined as basic principles of
digital preservation. The results are of this study now be presented and discussed.
Findings
A quantitative content analysis was performed on eight television production textbooks
using a research instrument designed to determine the presence of basic principles of digital
preservation. Complete analysis of the sample found that two of the textbooks mentioned any of
the seven basic principles. The two texts were Cue & Cut: A Practical Approach to
Working in Multi-Camera Studios (Singleton-Turner, 2011) and Video Shooter:
Storytelling with HD Cameras (Braverman, 2010). Both of these books contained
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 41
the same principle, metadata. The distribution of these appearances is now presented and
discussed. The six books that did not mention any of the principles are omitted.
Nominal Presence
The first step of the content analysis was to nominally determine the presence of these
terms in each of four possible locations within the texts, in this order: Glossary, Index, Table of
Contents, and Chapter Entry. Positive mentions are indicated by a “Y” for Yes, the absence of
the terms is noted by an “N” for No. Table 9 shows the nominal presence of the term in the
locations that were searched.
Table 9
Nominal Presence by Search Location
Book Glossary Index Table of Contents
Chapter Entry
Cue & Cut N Y Y Y
Video Shooter N Y Y Y
Three books in the sample did not contain glossaries, including the two that did include
the terms in some capacity. The third text that did not contain a glossary was Mastering
MultiCamera Techniques (Jacobson, 2010).
Frequency
The second step of the content analysis measured the frequency and distribution of the
positive mentions within the Index, Table of Contents and as Chapter Entries. The total numbers
of mentions in each section were tallied and are shown in Table 10.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 42
Table 10
Frequency of Positive Mentions by Search Location
Book Index Table of Contents
Chapter Entry
Cue & Cut 4 3 1
Video Shooter 2 1 1
This data was then analyzed further to determine the frequency within each location.
Table of Contents was measured by the number of chapters covering the subject in relation to the
total number of chapters in the text. Chapter Entries were measured in terms of how the term
was used, at either the sentence or paragraph level, and in relation to the total entries in each
chapter where the term was used.
Cue & Cut used metadata in three out of eighteen total chapters, and once in one of
four section introductions. Three of the uses were at the sentence-level. One uses was as a
Chapter Entry, with four additional sentence-level uses in one paragraph, in a chapter containing
eighteen entries. The term was used a total of seven times at the sentence-level.
Video Shooter used the metadata in one out of eleven chapters. The one use was as a
Chapter Entry, and included three total uses, including definition, at the sentence-level. The
Chapter Entry was one of fifteen in the chapter and comprised two paragraphs.
Distribution
The third step of the content analysis involved cross-referencing the results with other
bibliographic information to determine the distribution of the term by publication year (Table
11), series edition (Table 12), and subject heading (Table 13).
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 43
Table 11
Distribution by Year of Publication
Year # of Books in which Metadata appears
Total # of Books in Sample
Published That Year
2013 0 3
2012 0 1
2011 1 1
2010 1 3
Table 12
Distribution by Series Edition
Title Edition
Cue & Cut: A Practical Approach to Working in Multi-Camera Studios
1st
Video Shooter: Storytelling with HD Cameras 2nd
Table 13
Distribution by Subject Heading
Title Subject Heading
Cue & Cut: A Practical Approach to Working in Multi-Camera Studios
Television Production and Direction
Video Shooter: Storytelling with HD Cameras
Video Recordings, Production and Direction
Analysis of Findings
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 44
The previous section reported the findings of a quantitative content analysis of a
convenience sample of eight television production textbooks published since 2010. The data
gathered in the study were intended to answer two distinct research questions:
1) Do television production textbooks published since 2010 include basic principles of digital
preservation?
2) Would these texts be useful for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within
undergraduate television production curricula?
The data will now be analyzed in relation to these two research questions.
Research Question #1: Do television production textbooks published since
2010 include basic principles of digital preservation?
Of the eight books measured, only two mentioned any of the seven basic principles of
digital preservation, and both of those mentions were of the term metadata. Based on the
frequency and distribution of this single term, it cannot be said that the eight books of the sample
include basic principles of digital preservation. The total results cannot produce a conclusion
representative of the total population of television production textbooks produced since 2010.
Research Question #2: Would these texts be useful for introducing basic
principles of digital preservation within undergraduate television production
curricula?
Due to the minimal amount of raw data, a fourth step was added to record noteworthy
contextual information. A few of the books in the sample did attempt to address topics related to
digital preservation and archival standards, albeit with unique terminology. Braverman (2010)
included two chapter entries, ‘Archivable Deliverables’ and ‘The Archiving Challenge’. These
entries appeared respectively in chapters titled ‘Deliverables’ and ‘Going with the Flow’. Two
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 45
books accurately cited Linear Tape Open (LTO) as the best option for long-term preservation,
although for different reasons, neither one related to best archival practice. Braverman (2010)
pointed to the fragility and failure of hard drives, while Jacobson (2010) based his
recommendation on legal compliance for insurance. Braverman (2010) couched these concepts
in a somewhat dismissive attitude, claiming that “Nervous Nellies point to the inherent volatility
of data files (p.173) and “a standard’ is what everyone ignores. What everyone actually observes
is called industry practice” (p.178). Braverman also offers a description of the analogue
workflow that both mirrors the history of broadcast preservation -
“Shooting tape, we blissfully followed a simple workflow: roll of a bunch of cassettes,
hand them off to a production assistant, and submit an invoice. End of story. Nice”
- and deflates hope for the future of a workflow that incorporates digital preservation and
archival standards:
“Today, given the versatility of solid-state camera and the vagaries of computers and the
file-based environment, there is no longer one “industry-approved” workflow. In fact, there are
many possible workflows and you may well develop your own unique to your projects” (p.177).
The lack of frequency and distribution of basic digital principles in this sample is
disturbing, especially considering that the most recent mention was in 2011. Add to this the
problems associated with the contextual presentation of the one terms included, it can be said
that the texts in the sample would not be useful for incorporating basic principles of digital
preservation within undergraduate television production curricula. A representative conclusion
regarding all television production textbooks cannot be offered at this time.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 46
Chapter 5. Conclusion
This paper reported on a research project that explored available resources of potential
use for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within undergraduate television
production curricula. The findings presented are the result of a quantitative content analysis of a
particular resource, television production textbooks produced after the digital television
transition. The study was designed to answer two distinct research questions:
1) Do television production textbooks published since 2010 include basic principles of digital
preservation?
2) Would these texts be useful for introducing basic principles of digital preservation within
undergraduate television production curricula?
While it was possible to determine the answers to these questions within the sample, the
data collected are not significant enough to draw conclusions about the larger population. In
discussing the impact of research on orphan films, Streible (2007) references a colleague’s
observation that “research could not really be said to have broad impact until mainstreamed into
college-market textbooks” (p.128). Based on the analysis of the convenience sample selected for
measurement, it does not appear that research in the area of digital preservation has had much of
an impact on these particular texts.
Achievements
This study was undertaken as a capstone project for a graduate course on research in
Library and Information Studies at CUNY-Queens College in Flushing, New York. A research
problem was identified and two distinct research questions were posed. A relevant a literature
review was conducted. A research project was then designed to answer the research questions.
This included the selection of an appropriate methodology, identification and acquisition of a
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 47
sample, the development of a research instrument, and a quantitative content analysis to measure
the sample was executed. Data were collected and classified, and results were presented for
discussion.
Limitations
This origin of this project as a course assignment, and the caveat of completion of the
project in one semester, resulted in a project design with obvious limitations on time and scope.
Reliance on textbooks necessitated a degree of faith, both in that it was not known for certain
whether these texts are actually used in any specific courses and to maintain the “illusion that
students read all of the assigned texts or that professors actually refer to all of the readings.”
(Bastian and Yakel, 2006, p.137)
In addition to a larger sample of texts, greater amounts of data may have been available
through analysis of program offerings and syllabi. A larger scope may have included programs
in graphic design and interactive media, and alternative resources, particularly online or digital
learning tools might have been explored. The use of Library of Congress subject headings may
have itself been a limitation, as there is possibly a more appropriate subject authority for
television production. Methodologies such as surveying and interviewing may have yielded
different results. The list of basic principles of digital preservation may have been altered to
include terms that would perhaps be more relevant to television production.
Future Research
Future research in this area could be done using a wider range of resources and
methodologies. Throughout the study, several challenges brought to light other areas that need
exploration: the wide variety of names assigned to undergraduate media-related programs, the
lack of analysis of instructional texts used in these programs, the limitations of approved subject
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 48
headings for television production, and the question of what constitutes basic principles of digital
preservation.
With regards to preservation research and education, several LIS/IS programs are
experimenting with digital environments that complement classroom learning (Bastian, Cloonan
and Harvey, 2011). One of the challenges this poses is the acquisition of “large and
representative amounts of nonproprietary digital content for student use” (Bastian, Cloonan and
Harvey, 2011, p. 616). Undergraduate media production programs can alleviate this problem as
the nature of their coursework already creates such material. Becker (2009) describes ways in
which digital preservation has been integrated into an undergraduate film history course which
could easily be expanded to include actual interaction with such materials.
This would obviously involve engaging faculty, and more information regarding their
attitude towards digital preservation needs to be studied and understood.
A possible step after that would be to engage working archivists in the conversation.
Through some combined method of forum, survey and interviews, it may then be possible to
develop a model of instruction for a production workflow that incorporates digital preservation.
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 49
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Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 55
Appendix A. Producers Definitions of Producer
"Most people have absolutely no concept of what producers do, even people in the film
business…"-- Barbara Broccoli (co-producer of James Bond movies) (Pardo, 2010)
"Every producer is different -- it's been so different on every movie that I've worked on. For me,
there is no definition"-- Sydney Pollack (producer and director). (De Winter, cited in Pardo,
2010)
“Most people think a producer is the one who puts the money, which is wrong. If you're smart,
you will never put up the money yourself! (Seger & Whetmore, cited in Pardo 2010)
“In his hands lies the supervision of every element that goes to make up the finished product.
These elements are both tangible and intangible, the control of human beings and real properties
as well as the control of the artistic temperament, the shaping of creative forces and the
knowledge of the public needs for entertainment (Jesse Lasky, 1937: 1). (cited in Pardo, 2010)
John Yorke, Producer, EastEnders on being a Producer?: “I think the only thing you have to have
is the courage to a)make decision quickly and then b)stand by the consequences of doing that.”
(Gilbert, 2010, p.30)
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 56
Appendix B. CUNY Production programs
School Undergraduate Majors Advanced Majors
Borough of Manhattan Community College
AS Media Arts & Technology; AA Communications Studies
Bronx Community College AA Media Studies, AS Media and Digital Film Production, AS Media Technology
Brooklyn College BA Documentary Production BA Film ProductionBA Film StudiesBA Film Industry StudiesBA ScreenwritingBA Television and Radio
MFA Television Production; MS Media StudiesMFA: Producing, Post Production (2015)MA Cinema Studies (2015)
College of Staten Island BA Cinema StudiesBS Communications
MA Cinema and Media Studies
CCNY BFA Film and Video Production
MFA Media Arts Production
Hunter College BA FilmBA Media Studies
MFA Integrated Media Arts
Kingsborough Community College
AAS Media Arts
LaGuardia CC AA Media Studies
Lehman BA Film and TV StudiesBA Media Communications Studies
MFA with specialization in Digital Media
NYCCT New York City College of Technology
Video Production Certificate
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School Undergraduate Majors Advanced Majors
Queens BA Media StudiesBA Film Studies
MA Media Studies
York BS Communications Technology
CUNY Graduate School of Journalism
MA, Journalism
School Majors Departments
Brooklyn College Film; Television and Radio School of Visual, Media and Performing Arts
Borough of Manhattan Community College
Multimedia Art, Multimedia Programming, Video Arts & Technology
Media Arts & Technology
Borough of Manhattan Community College
Communication Studies Speech, Communication & Theatre Arts
Bronx Community College Media Studies; Media and Digital Film Production;Media Technology
Communications Arts & Sciences
College of Staten Island Cinema StudiesCommunicationsCinema and Media Studies
Media Culture
CCNY Film and Video Production Media & Communication Arts
Hunter College Film; Media Studies Film and Media Studies
Kingsborough Community College
Media Arts Communication and Performing Arts
LaGuardia Community College
Media StudiesNew Media Technology
Media Technology
Lehman College Film and TV StudiesMedia Communications Studies
Journalism, Communications and Theatre
NYCCT Video Production Entertainment Technology
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 58
School Majors Departments
Queens College Media StudiesFilm Studies
Media Studies
York Performing and Fine Arts Communications/Technology
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 59
Appendix C. National Production Programs
National Center for Education’s College Navigator
Heading (Programs and Majors in Heading)
Non Advanced
Advanced
Total Programs and Majors
Heading Communication, Journalism, and Related Programs (23)
Subheading 1
Communication and Media Studies
Sub Heading 1.1
Communication and Media Studies, other 99 41 140
Sub sub heading 1.2
Communications, General 180 46 226
Sub sub heading 1.3
Mass Communication/Media Studies 270 70 340
Sub Heading 1.4
Speech Communication and Rhetoric n/a n/a n/a
Subheading 2
Communication, Journalism and Related Programs, others
Subsub 2.1
Communication, Journalism and Related Programs, others
104 32 136
Subheading 3
Journalism
sub sub 3.1
Broadcast Journalism 83 5 88
Subheading 4
PR, Advertising and Applied Communication
n/a
Subheading 5
Publishing n/a
Subheading 6
Radio, Television and Digital Communication
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Subsub 6.1
Digital Communication and Media/Multimedia
191 32 223
Subsub 6.2
Radio and Television 192 21 213
Radio, Televisions ,and Digital Communication
33 3 36
Heading Heading Visual and Performing Arts (64)subs1-5 n/asubheading 6(2)
Film/Video and Photographic Arts
subsub6(2).1
Cinematography and Film/Video Production 190 38 228
Subsub 6(2).2
Documentary Production 5 5 10
Sub sub 6.3
Film/Cinema/Video Studies 147 31 178
Sub sub 6.4
Film/Video and Photographic Arts, other 40 10 50
sub sub 6.5
Photography n/a
Peterson’s Guide to Colleges.
UndergraduateHeading Visual and Performing Arts UndergradSubheading Film/Cinema/Video StudiesSubsubheading
Film/Cinema/Video Studies 242
Subsubheading
Cinematography and Film/Video Production 210
Heading Communication/JournalismSubheading Communication/Journalism
subsubheading
Radio & Television 226
Radio, television and digital communication related 44Mass Communication/Media 538
Heading Communication Technologies
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Radio and Television Broadcasting Technology 86
Appendix D. Complete bibliographic information for sample
Author(s) Title Year Edition Publisher Holding Libraries
Owens, Millerson
Television Production
2013 15th Focal Press (Taylor and Francis) NY & London
Manhattan CC, Brooklyn, NYCCT
Zettl Video Basics 7
2013 1st Cengage Advantage, Boston, MA
Bronx CC
Harris Television Production & Broadcast Journalism
2012 2nd Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. Illinois
York College
Owens, Millerson
Video Production Handbook
2013 5th Focal Press (Taylor and Francis) NY & London
Manhattan CC, Bronx CC, Kingsborough
Rea, Irving Producing and Directing the Short Film and Video
2010 4th Focal Press (Elsevier) Burlington, MA and Oxford
NYCCT
Jacobson Mastering MultiCamera Techniques: From Preproduction to Editing and Deliverables
2010 1st Focal Press (Elsevier) Burlington, MA and Oxford
NYCCT
Braverman Video Shooter: Storytelling with HD Cameras
2010 2nd Focal Press (Elsevier) Burlington, MA and Oxford
Manhattan CC, NYCCT
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 62
Author(s) Title Year Edition Publisher Holding Libraries
Singleton-Turner
Cue & Cut: A Practical Approach to Working in Multi-Camera Studios
2011 1st Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York
Brooklyn College
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 63
Appendix E. Complete list of digital preservation terminology
Definition Source
Definition Source
Definition Source
Definition Source
Term NDSA ALA DPC UM # of Times Term Appears
Digital Preservation
x x x x 4
Emulation x x x x 4Metadata x x x x 4Migration x x x x 4Born digital
x x x 3
Provenance
x x x (variation)
3
Refreshing x x x (variation)
3
Access x x 2
Authentication
x x 2
Authenticity
x x 2
Digital Content
x x 2
Digital materials
x x 2
Digital Object
x x 2
Format migration
x x (variation)
2
Integrity x x (variation)
2
Life Cycle Management
x x (variation)
2
Process noun
x x 2
Reformatting
x (variation)
x 2
Render x (variation)
x 2
Storage x x 2
Unique identifier
x x (variation)
2
Verify x x (variation)
2
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 64
File format x x 2
Archival Original
x 1
Backup x 1
Bag x 1
Bagger x 1
BagIt Specification
x 1
Best Edition
x 1
Bit Preservation
x 1
Canonical x 1
Chain of Custody
x 1
Checksum x 1
Creation x 1
Dark archive
x 1
Derivative x 1
Digital archiving
x 1
Digital publications
x 1
Digital repository
x 1
Digital Signature
x 1
Disaster prevention
x 1
Electronic Records
x 1
Fixity check
x 1
Ingest x 1
Instance x 1
Maintenance
x 1
Management
x 1
Master files
x 1
Obsolescence
x 1
Air Today, Gone Tomorrow 65
Organizational Unity
x 1
Package (verb)
x 1
package(noun)
x 1
Permissions
x 1
Preservation copy
x 1
Process verb
x 1
Received version
x 1
Restricted Use
x 1
Schema x 1
Validation x 1
Digitization
x 1
Documentation
x 1