All of the following processes occur within mitochondria except:

A) the splitting of glucose.B) the formation of citric acid.C) the catabolism of citric acid to produce NADH, CO2, and H+.D) the transfer of electrons from NADH to the electron transport chain.E) the reduction of oxygen to form water.

In gylcolysis, a small amount of ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation.

A) TrueB) False

T F Phosphorylation of ADP in the electron transportchain is powered by the movement of electronsthrough an ATP-synthase molecule.

Outline

I. What is DNA?

II. How does DNA code for proteins?

III. Human Genome Project

The plans for all proteins are encoded

This plan is called DNA

DNA Function

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) serves as code for protein synthesis

DNA Function

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) serves as code for protein synthesis

• Gene – segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide

• Genome - all the genes of one person

The Structure of DNA

• DNA is a polymer of __________

• ____________ consist of:

– sugar– phosphate group– nitrogenous base

Nitrogenous Bases of DNA

• Adenine (A)

• Thymine (T)

• Cytosine (C)

• Guanine (G)

Nitrogenous Bases of DNA

• Adenine (A)

• Thymine (T)

• Cytosine (C)

• Guanine (G)

DNA has roughly equal quantities of A & T,and equal quantities of C & G

Watson & Crick revealed the structure of DNA.Watson & Crick revealed the structure of DNA.

What Does your DNA Look Like?

What Does your DNA Look Like?

DNA Structure

• DNA is a Double Helix

• Free Railed Spiral Staircase

1

2

DNA Structure

• DNA is a Double Helix

• Free Railed Spiral Staircase

• Phosphate-sugar handrails

• Nitrogenous Base Pair steps

1

2

The Double Helix

Complementary Base Pairing

• Nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds

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Complementary Base Pairing

• Nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds

• Only certain bases can bond (A—T and C—G)

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Complementary Base Pairing

• Nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds

• Only certain bases can bond (A—T and C—G)

• One strand determines base sequence of other strand

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It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.

- Watson & Crick, 1953, Nature

Structure of DNA• What is a gene?

– Short segment of DNA

~ 30,000 genes in your DNA– Each gene codes for 1 protein

Structure of DNA

• Total length of 3 meters

Three meters long?!But how does it all fit

in such a tiny cell?

Condensed

vs

Uncondensed DNA

5 Steps

Packaging of DNA

1. DNA

Almost never like this

Packaging of DNA

1. DNA

Almost never like this

2. Chromatin

Almost always like this

Proteins

3. Chromatin coils

3. Chromatin Coils 4. Super-coiling

3. Chromatin Coiling 4. Super-coiling

5. Chromosome

“Colored Body”

Chromatid

Super-Coiling Chain Demonstration

The DNA Code• Every 3 bases = codon

• Codons:– Interact with Ribosome

– Bring Amino Acid X

– __________ order determines protein function

1953 Watson & Crick reveal structure of DNA

1975 Developed method of sequencing DNA

1985 US Department of Energy explored the possibility of learning the human genome

1990 Mapping of human genome begins

Discovering The Human Genome

1998 Celera Genomics vows to discover entire genome within 3 years!

Craig Venter

Nerds in Competition

VS

NIH Celera Genomics

1953 Watson & Crick reveal structure of DNA

1975 Developed method of sequencing DNA

1985 US Department of Energy explored the possibility of learning the human genome

1990 Mapping of human genome begins

Discovering The Human Genome

1998 Celera Genomics vows to discover entire genome within 3 years!

2000 Teams publish joint rough draft of Human Genome

Craig Venter

Our Genome Revealed to the World

Oh yeah, I am going tobe sooo rich.

Mr. President, that man is an idiot!

Who’s that gorgeous ladysitting next to Hillary?

Left to Right: Craig Venter, President Bill Clinton, Francis CollinsLeft to Right: Craig Venter, President Bill Clinton, Francis Collins

What have we learned already?

• Genes are scattered through the genome and surrounded by regions of “Junk DNA”

What have we learned already?

• Genes are scattered through the genome and surrounded by regions of “Junk DNA”

• Coding regions are rich in _____ pairs while junk DNA is rich in _____ pairs

What have we learned already?

• Genes are concentrated in random areas throughout the genome; these areas are surrounded by vast regions of “Junk DNA”

• Coding regions are rich in _____ pairs while junk DNA is rich in _____ pairs

• Up to 30,000 G-C pairs bound the edges of coding regions, separating them from junk DNA

What is on the horizon?

• Identify risk for genetically-based diseases at birth

What is on the horizon?

• Identify risk for genetically-based diseases at birth

• Cure illnesses through Gene Therapy

What is Gene Therapy?

1. Take Cells

What is Gene Therapy?

1. Take Cells

Virus

2. Insert Gene

What is Gene Therapy?

1. Take Cells

Virus

2. Insert Gene

3. Insert Virus

What is Gene Therapy?

1. Take Cells

Virus

2. Insert Gene

3. Insert Virus

4. Gene Inserted

What is Gene Therapy?

1. Take Cells

Virus

2. Insert Gene

3. Insert Virus

4. Gene Inserted

5. Insert Cells

6. Synthesis

What is on the horizon?

• Identify risk for genetically-based diseases at birth

• Cure illnesses through gene therapy

• Genetically-based prescription drug reaction testing

Pharmacogenetics