Anthropological Research

Theories, Questions, Scales, Data, and Models

Anthropological Research• Research begins with an idea or

question about something:– From the literature– Derived from a theory or model– From a discovery of a pattern in the

data• The purpose of research is to

evaluate the support for that idea

Theories in Anthropology• Linked sets of statements about

how people behave and why, e.g.– Zipf’s Law of the Minimum – people

minimize their effort– Cultural Ecology – people behave in

ways that harmonize with their environment

– Behavioral Ecology – natural selection shapes our behavior

Kinds of Theories in Anthropology

• Biology (population genetics)• Environment/Ecology (exogenous)• Demography (endogenous)• Culture (innovation, diffusion,

migration, interaction, stratification)

• Psychology (individual needs/wants/ strategic action)

Who Questions• Who has power?• Who has wealth?• Who is related to whom?• Who were the first agriculturalists?• Who were the first Americans/

Australians?

What Questions• What do people call their kin?• What are the rules for dividing

shares?• What kind of houses do they build?• What was this artifact used for?• What disturbances have altered

the site?

When Questions• When did the first humans

emerge?• When did agriculture begin?• When did Western influences

become important?• When was the New World

colonized?

Where Questions• Where do people live, work, play?• Where are various activities

performed?• Where are people buried?

Why Questions• Why do people believe in . . . ?• Why do people do . . . ?• Why was agriculture invented?• Why are pots decorated?• Why did states emerge?

How Questions• How was Australia colonized?• How did the Indo European

language spread?• How did human culture emerge?• How do people classify . . .?• How does globalization affect local

culture?

Scale• Global view – big picture processes• Temporal view – periods, phases• Regional view – social networks,

territories• Local view – neighborhood• Site/Village view – structure,

context• Individual view – life history, types

Global View• Climate, soils, topography,

ecological zones, isolation, ocean currents

• Data on cultures, nations – demography, economy, ideology

• Broad patterns between global characteristics and culture

Temporal View• Archaeological time/space charts

spanning millennia• Historical timelines spanning

centuries• Generational data• Life history data

Regional View• Environmental variability at

regional level – rivers, mountains, vegetation, ecological communities

• Locations of sites/villages• Characteristics of sites/villages

Site/Village View• Site neighborhood• Location of structures, features,

artifact clusters• Household composition• Variability

Household View• Location (within village/site)• Pattern of structures, features, and

activity areas• Comparison with other households

Individual View• Physiology, genetic makeup,

skeletal characteristics• Life history• Statuses and roles• Decision making• Belief system

Individual (Artifact) View• Group (classification)• Composition• Properties – size, shape, color,

quality, wear, breakage, material, Style vs. Function

Models• A model uses a theory to develop

expectations about what kinds of patterns we will find in the data

• Models use theories and operational arguments to tell us what is important in the data

• Statistics can help evaluate the fit between model and data

Evaluation• Must check reasoning from theory

to model• Must check operational arguments

and proxy measures• Must check data gathering process• Must check role of formation

processes

Quantitative Approaches• Estimation and Confirmation

– Sampling– Parametric vs. Non-parametric– Response (Dependent) vs.

Explanatory (Independent) variables (causal models)

• Descriptive– Data Reduction, Pattern Recognition

(Exploratory Data Analysis)

Kinds of Data• Scales of measurement – nominal,

ordinal, interval, ratio (dichotomy)• Discrete vs. Continuous• Composition/Assemblage

(Percentages)