Post on 02-May-2017
transcript
INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps.
ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA
800-521-0600
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The Relationship Between Use of the Internet and Social Development
in Adolescence
By
Erica I. Heitner, M.S.Ed.
A Doctoral Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology
in the Department of Psychology at Pace University
New York
2002
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission
UMI Number. 3065540
Copyright 2002 by Heitner, Erica I.
All rights reserved.
UMI’UMI Microform 3065540
Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
PSY.D PROJECT FINAL APPROVAL FORM
NAME: ______Erica Heitner__________________________
TITLE OF PROJECT:_____ The Relationship Between Use of the Internet
and Social Development in Adolescence
DOCTORAL PROJECT COMMITTEE:
PROJECT ADVISOR: Florence L. Denmark. Ph.D.__________________Name
Robert Scott Pace Distinguished Professor Emerita Tide
Pace University____________________________Affiliation
PROJECT CONSULTANT: Alfred W. Ward. Ph.D.________Name
Associate Professor of Psychology Tide
Pace University_______________Affiliation
FINAL APPROVAL OF COMPLETED PROJECT:
I have read the final version of the doctoral project and certify that it meets the relevant requirements for the Psy.D. degree in School-Clinical Child Psychology.
Project Advisor’s Signal
Project.Consultant’s Signature
Date
22rDate
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Completing this doctoral project and navigating the challenges of graduate
school would not have been possible without the guidance, reassurance, and
support provided by many important people:
Florence L. Denmark: Ydh have been, and continue to be, an outstanding
mentor and friend to me. I cannot thank you enough for all your support, sage
advice, and guidance throughout graduate school. You motivated me to
successfully complete my doctoral project and were always available to provide
important feedback and valuable suggestions. This project surely would not have
been completed so quickly without you! Working as your research assistant has
been an incredible experience and I am so appreciative of the many opportunities
you have provided me.
Alfred W. Ward: Thank you for being accessible and available to provide
assistance in the development of my project, the creation of my survey, and the
statistical analysis of my results. You always provided thoughtful comments, clear,
helpful explanations, and important, practical advice. I am especially grateful for
the reassurance you provided the many times when I became anxious about
completing this project!
Steve Salbod: I greatly appreciate the time you devoted to helping me with
this doctoral project. Your assistance in setting up my database was a crucial
component in the completion of this project. I have enjoyed working with you in
the Psychology Department; thank you for providing so many laughs and
introducing me to many wonderful books, films, and programs.
iii
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Aqueda, Janette, and Betsey: You are truly the glue that holds the
Psychology Department together and it was a pleasure working with you during my
days as a Research Assistant Thank you for helping smooth over any rough
patches that I encountered on the bumpy road of graduate school.
Bonnie Altman and Eve Kleeger: I hope you both know how invaluable
you have been in my life! Thank you so much for navigating me through graduate
school, making sure I always registered for the right courses and studied for exams,
providing answers to countless questions, offering emotional support and serving
as an outlet to vent fhistrations and celebrate triumphs. I am so very fortunate to
have friends as wonderful as you.
Mom, Dad, and Jody: You stood by me throughout many difficult moments
of graduate school and your support and faith never wavered. You allowed me to
work at my own pace, while providing an endless supply of encouragement love,
and even some unsolicited advice! You took pride in my accomplishments and
always made me feel supported and valued. For all you have given me, lots of love
and thanks.
iv
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vii
ABSTRACT viii
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Adolescent Social Development 6
Social Skills 7
Social Withdrawal 8
Social Anxiety 9
Psychological Impact of Internet Use 11
Internet Use and Social Withdrawal 11
Internet Use and Social Skills 17
Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study 22
Hypotheses 23
III. METHOD 24
Participants 24
Materials 24
Activities Questionnaire for Students 24
Personality Inventory for Youth 25
Procedure 26
V
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
CHAPTER PAGE
IV. RESULTS 28
Description of the Sample 28
Analysis o f Hypotheses 36
Results of Correlational Analysis 36
Additional Analyses 42
Results of 2 x 3 ANOVA 42
Results of Post-hoc Analysis 42
V. DISCUSSION 45
Summary 45
Limitations of the Present Study 49
Implications for School-Clinical Child Psychology 50
Areas for Further Research 51
REFERENCES 53
APPENDICES 60
A. Activities Questionnaire for Students 60
B. Personality Inventory for Youth: Social Skills Deficits Scale 64
C. Personality Inventory for Youth: Social Withdrawal Scale 65
D. Consent Form 66
vi
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Location of Internet Use 28
2. Length of Internet Access 29
3. Internet Activities 30
4. On-line Interactions 31
5. Frequency of Internet Use 32
6. Type of Internet Use 34
7. Categories of Internet Users 36
8. Relationships between Internet Use and Social Development Variables 38
9. F Ratios for Gender by Type of Internet Use ANOVA for 42
Social Development Variables
10. Social Development Variables by Type of Internet Use 44
vii
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
ABSTRACT
Personal use of the Internet has increased dramatically over the past several
years, and the number of American households with access to the Internet
continues to multiply at a rapid speed. One of the fastest growing segments of
Internet users are teenagers. To investigate the impact of this technology on
adolescent social development, this study examined the relationship between
Internet use and social development using a sample of adolescents. Data was
collected by administering an Activities Questionnaire for Students and the Social
Withdrawal scale and Social Skills Deficits scales from the Personality Inventory
for Youth (PIY) to 104 adolescents in a private school setting. The Activities
Questionnaire for Students, a self-report instrument designed by the researcher,
was used to measure both frequency and type of Internet use. Frequency of Internet
use was assessed by the number of hours typically spent on-line and type of
Internet use was determined by considering the level of social involvement
required by each of seven specific Internet activities: e-mailing, going to sites on
the World Wide Web, participating in Chat Rooms, communicating with others
through Instant Messenger, playing single-player on-line games, playing multi
player on-line games, and posting to message boards. Six social development
variables were used: social introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal were
measured by the Social Withdrawal scale of the PIY, and limited peer status,
conflict with peers, and social skills deficits were measured by the Social Skills
Deficits scale of the PIY. Pearson product-moment correlations were used to test
the relationship between frequency of Internet use and the six social development
viii
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
variables and between type of Internet use and the six social development
variables. Results indicated that time spent on the Internet during the weekdays
was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status. Time spent on the
World Wide Web was significantly positively correlated with limited peer status
and social skills deficits. Time spent on E-mail was significantly positively
correlated with limited peer status, social skills deficits, social introversion, and
social withdrawal. Time spent in Chat Rooms was significantly positively
correlated with limited peer status and social skills deficits. Time spent on Instant
Messenger was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status, social
introversion, and social withdrawal. Time spent on Multi-player On-line games
was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status. In addition to
calculating the correlations between each specific Internet activity and the social
development variables, three categories of Internet use were created for statistical
analysis. “Not Social” Internet users primarily surfed the World Wide Web and
played single-player on-line games, “Asynchronous social” Internet users primarily
communicated with others through e-mail and posted to message boards, and
“Synchronous social” Internet users primarily communicated with others through
Instant Messenger, participated in Chat Rooms, and played multi-player on-line
games. A gender by type of Internet use 2 x 3 ANOVA found a main effect for
type of Internet use for limited peer status, social skills deficits, social introversion,
and social withdrawal. The results of this investigation can be utilized by school
and child-clinical psychologists to identify adolescents who may be experiencing
social difficulties.
ix
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
INTRODUCTION
The past several years have borne witness to an incredible surge in the use
of the Internet. Consider the following statistics: The share of homes with Internet
access rose from 26.2% in December 1998 to 41.5% in August 2000, an increase
of 58%. The share of Internet users rose from 32.7% in December 1998 to 44.4%
in August 2000, an increase of 35.8%. In August 2000 more than half of all
households had computers, an increase of 42.1% from December 1998. In August
2000 there were 116.5 million Americans online, an increase of 31.9 million users
from 20 months prior (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000). The Media in the
Home 2000 survey discovered that in the year 2000 more households had Internet
subscriptions (52%) than newspaper subscriptions (42%) (Woodard & Gridina,
2000). According to current 2002 statistics published by the U.S. Department of
Commerce there are nearly 150 million Americans who are going online (Ubois,
2002).
Also on the rise is the percentage of households with children who have
computers and online access. A 1999 survey entitled “Kids and Media at the New
Millennium” conducted by the Henry J. Kaiser Foundation found that 21% of
children ages 8 to 18 had computers in their bedrooms (Leland, 2000). According
to data collected by the Alliance for Converging Technologies, in the year 2000,
30% of children had Internet access in their homes (Tapscott, 1998). Today more
than 80% of households with computers are linked to the Internet and nine out of
perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
ten children now have access to the Internet either at home or in school (Thomas,
2001).
More specifically, one of the fastest growing segments of Internet users are
teenagers. In fact, 75% of adolescents between the ages of 14 and 17 are now
online (Ubois, 2002). According to a 2002 America Online survey o f6,700 parents
and teenagers, children ages 12-17 spend an average of 12 hours and 15 minutes
online each week (Thomas, 2002). Geographically Pittsburgh ranked highest in
teen Internet use, with 15 hours, 49 minutes of use per week, and New York City
came in second place, with 14 hours, 54 minutes of teen Internet use per week. A
2002 Gallup Survey revealed that children between the ages of 8 and 17 would
choose the Internet over the television, telephone, and radio if they could only have
one medium of entertainment (Newsweek, 2002) Responding to the revolutionary
impact of the Internet and other forms of digital technologies on today’s children,
Tapscott proclaimed that the children of today should be known as “The Net
Generation” (1998). N-Geners, as he calls them, are growing up in a digital era in
which “(they) are so bathed in bits that they think it’s all part of the natural
landscape. To them, the digital technology is no more intimidating than a VCR or
toaster” (1998, p. 1).
Psychologists are beginning to explore issues relating to children’s and
adolescent’s use of the Internet. Instead of taking a simplistic view of Internet use,
they are examining both the potential risks and potential benefits. On the positive
side, the Internet contains a wealth of information that can be accessed for
perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
3
educational purposes. Today a child can turn to the Internet to conduct research on
virtually any topic of their choice. Some of the noted risks of children’s Internet
use include possible exposure to child predators online and exposure to
inappropriate material (Bremer & Rauch, 1998). For example, there is an
abundance of pornography on the Internet that is easily accessed by children and
adolescents. This has raised many ethical and legal issues regarding censorship,
and several censoring programs, including SurfWatch and Net Nanny, have been
created to allow parents to restrict their children’s Web access. Parents are also
concerned about their children’s disclosure of private family information over the
web (Turow & Nir, 2000).
With a virtually unlimited world available to children and adolescents on
the Internet, a question being investigated is: What do kids actually do with
computers? According to the “Kids and the New Millennium” study conducted by
the Kaiser Foundation (Leland, 2000), children spend their computer time
engaging in many different activities. Twenty-six percent of their computer time is
spent playing games, and 22% of their computer time is devoted to schoolwork.
Internet time is divided amongst Chat rooms (10%), Web surfing (15%), and
Using e-mail (9%). Tapscott (1998) collected information from over 300 N-Geners
through a series of “Growing up Digital” online forums. He found that children
and adolescents use computers for entertainment, learning, communicating and
shopping. A study of 291 elementary school students examined the frequency of
Internet uses at home according to gender. The following results were obtained: E-
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
4
mail: girls 17%, boys 22%; Net Surfing: girls 28%, boys 43%; Chat rooms: girls
10%, boys 7%; and Information retrieval: girls 29%, boys 43% (Kafai & Sutton,
1999). Most recently, America Online’s 2002 survey discovered that e-mailing
(81%) and sending instant messages (70%) are the top Internet activities among
children ages 12-17. Fifty-eight percent of the teens in their sample use the
Internet to do homework, 55% download music off the Internet, and 70% are
involved in playing on-line games (Thomas, 2002).
Another study found that nearly three out of four online teenagers use the
online program “instant messenger” (Thomas, 2001). This form of communication,
which allows two individuals to instantly send text messages to one another while
both are online, is dramatically altering the way that teenagers communicate and
develop socialization skills. Twenty percent of this sample considered instant
messenger to be their primary method of communicating with their peers. Many
respondents (37% of the sample) indicated that an instant messenger conversation
would allow them to say something to a friend that they would not otherwise say in
person or on the telephone. In this capacity, Instant Messenger may be breaking
down social barriers between individuals and facilitating more truthful exchanges.
Another change brought about by instant messenger is the new possibility for
teenagers to carry on multiple conversations simultaneously, a skill that has been
termed “split attention.”
The widespread availability of the Internet among today’s teenagers raises
many compelling questions about how this technology may be impacting the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
process of adolescent socialization. With several new methods of social interaction
and communication, the Internet has the potential to dramatically alter the way that
adolescents develop social skills. By providing a different space for social
exchanges, where teens can choose to communicate anonymously, carry on
multiple conversations simultaneously, or withdraw from social discourse
altogether, cyberspace is inevitably changing the course of adolescent social
development.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
6
LITERATURE REVIEW
Adolescent Social Development
Psychologists are beginning to explore ways that use of the Internet affects
children’s and adolescent’s social and psychological development. Adolescence is
an important developmental stage in which relationships with peers begin to
eclipse relationships with parents (Laursen, 1996). During adolescence the nature
and significance of close relationships start to shift. The distinction between
voluntary and involuntary relationships becomes more salient, and as a result,
adolescents go to great lengths to avoid conflict in their close relationships with
others. Contact with peers increases while contact with adults simultaneously
decreases (Schaeffer, 1996). Sullivan (1953) discussed the need for interpersonal
intimacy that arises during adolescence and highlighted the significance of
“chumships” in healthy social development.
Several researchers have identified the characteristics of close relationships
in adolescence. Hartup (1993) identified reciprocity, commitment and equality as
critical components of teen friendships. At the start of the teenage years,
adolescents enter an “empathic stage” in which they begin to care about what
happens to their friends (Reisman & Shorr, 1978). Self-disclosure and mutual
understanding become important aspects of friendships in adolescence (Reisman &
Shorr, 1978), as peers become a significant source of emotional support during the
teenage years (Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993). Studies using the Network
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
of Relationships Inventory revealed that as children progressed from grades 2
through 8, intimacy and companionship increased with friends, but decreased with
family members, classmates and adults. Across grades 4 through 10, a composite
index score, which included intimacy, companionship, affection, and reliable
alliance, increased among friends, whereas it decreased with parents, siblings, and
teachers.
It is clear that peer relationships play a crucial role in the lives of
adolescents; therefore, difficulty forming peer relationships can have detrimental
psychological effects on children and adolescents. Children can experience many
different types of social difficulties. Youngsters who lack the skills to successfully
negotiate social situations may become nervous in social situations. Discomfort
with the social milieu can lead children and adolescents to avoid social
opportunities and become introverted or withdrawn.
Social Skills
Social skills are crucial for the successful navigation of the childhood and
teenage years. Adolescents who are socially competent possess many talents and
abilities that promote healthy social functioning (Barber & Erickson, 2001).
Socially skilled adolescents tend to be active participants in their social worlds;
they feel a sense of social responsibility, behave in positive, prosocial ways, strive
towards achievement, are friendly towards others, exhibit self-determination, and
strike a balance between their own goals and the goals of others (Baumrind, 1978;
Crocenkenberg, Jackson & Langrock, 1996; Garmezy, 1971; Pandina, Labouvie,
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
8
Johnson, & Raskin White, 1990). Children who are socially competent possess the
skills needed to initiate social interactions with peers, maintain social interactions,
and resolve interpersonal conflicts (Asher, Renshaw, & Hymel, 1982). These
qualities place socially competent individuals in a favorable position to attain
happiness, develop meaningful relationships, and achieve successful futures. In
contrast, the emotional and behavioral correlates associated with individuals who
possess deficits in social competence are decidedly inauspicious. Research has
linked reduced social competence with unhappiness, learning disabilities, and
externalizing and internalizing disorders (McGhee & Williams, 1991; Finger &
Silverman, 1966; Levendosky, Okun & Parker, 1995; Scheier & Botvin, 1998).
Social Withdrawal
Socially withdrawn children are typically characterized as behaviorally
inhibited and unassertive in social interactions (Rubin, LeMare, & Lollis, 1990).
These children tend to shy away from peer interactions, which often leads to
isolation and rejection by peers who perceive them to be unwillingness to join in
group interactions (Rubin & Coplan, 1992). Research demonstrates that socially
withdrawn children are at significant risk for poor psychological outcomes. Hymel,
Rubin, Rowden, and LeMare (1990) found that rejected children who were socially
withdrawn at seven-years-old went on to develop internalizing problems three year
later, which included fearfulness, anxiety, and overall withdrawal. In another
study, socially withdrawn nine-year old children reported loneliness and depression
four years later (Rubin & Mills, 1991). Social withdrawal in childhood is believed
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
9
to impede the development of social skills, thwart the establishment of friendships,
and diminish self-esteem (Rubin, LeMare & Lollis 1990; Vemberg et al., 1992).
Social Anxiety
Social anxiety in childhood can also have detrimental long-term effects.
When discomfort with social situations interferes with daily functioning, an
individual might meet criteria for social phobia, also known as social anxiety
disorder. The specific features of social phobia, outlined in the DSM-IV, include;
1) A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way (or show anxiety symptoms) that will be humiliating or embarrassing. In children, there must be evidence of the capacity for age appropriate social relationships with familiar people and the anxiety must occur in peer settings, not just in interactions with adults.
2) Exposure to the feared social situation almost invariably provokes anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally predisposed Panic Attack. In children, the anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or shrinking from social situations with unfamiliar people.
3) The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable. In children, this feature may be absent.
4) The feared social or performance situations are avoided or else are endured with intense anxiety or distress.
5) The avoidance, anxious participation, or distress in the feared social or performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the person’s normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or social activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about having the phobia. (DSM-IV, 1994, pp 416-417).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
10
Additional characteristics commonly linked with social phobia include
“hypersensitivity to criticism, negative evaluation, or rejection; difficulty being
assertive; and low self-esteem or feelings of inferiority (DSM-IV, 1994, p. 413).
The mean age of onset of social anxiety disorder is 15.5 years old and persons
suffering from this disorder commonly report shyness and avoidance of social
interactions (Liebowitz, 1999). According to the DSM-IV (1994) social phobia or
social anxiety disorder typically emerges in the mid-teenage years, however, the
roots o f the disorder may be found in a shy, withdrawn childhood. The disorder
tends to persist throughout an individual's lifetime, though the symptoms may
fluctuate according the current stressors or positive experiences in a person's life.
Prevalence rates for social phobia range from 3% to 13% in the general population.
Children suffering from social phobia may present with poor school performance,
refusal to attend school, and general avoidance of social interactions and dating.
While studies suggest that social phobia is more prevalent in females than males,
most clinical samples have an equal distribution of both sexes (DSM-IV, 1994).
Individuals afflicted with social anxiety disorder often experience difficulty
attaining educational success, keeping stable jobs, maintaining relationships with
others, and achieving financial stability (Liebowitz, 1999). Their social support
networks are generally impoverished and they are less likely to get married
(DSM-IV, 1994). Persons with social phobia are also at risk for dropping out of
school, unemployment, and extreme loneliness (DSM-IV, 1994). As a result,
social anxiety disorder is often experienced with comorbid depression (Last,
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
11
Strauss, & Francis, 1987). In addition, research has linked friendlessness in
childhood and adolescence with emotional problems, social skills deficits, poor
school adjustment, and fewer educational gains (Schaeffer, 1996). Fortunately,
early recognition and treatment of social anxiety disorder can prevent the
extremely detrimental long-term outcomes mentioned above (Beidel, 1998).
Psychological Impact o f Internet Use
While there is much speculation concerning the psychological effects of the
Internet on its users there is a scarcity of empirical research on this topic. I will
present a review of the current available literature, including both speculative and
empirically based articles.
Internet Use and Social Withdrawal
Kraut, Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukopadhyay, and Scherlis published
a controversial study in the American Psychologist in 1998 entitled “Internet
Paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological
well-being?” Recognizing the tremendous impact of the Internet in our society,
Kraut et al conducted a study to determine whether the Internet is increasing or
decreasing levels of social involvement and to examine the impact of the Internet
on psychological functioning. The researchers employed a longitudinal research
design, collecting data at various time intervals, which allowed them to make
causal statements regarding the effect of Internet use on social involvement and
psychological well-being.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
12
The HomeNet study, as it was called, utilized a participant population of 93
families residing in the Pittsburgh area of Pennsylvania. Participating families
were provided with a computer and an Internet account, which included electronic
mail (e-mail) addresses, for use in their homes. Demographic information was
collected and self-report measures of social involvement and psychological well
being were given before and after subjects were provided with access to the
Internet. Special logging programs recorded their Internet usage during the
duration of the study, which included the total number of hours they spent on the
Internet, the time spend on the World Wide Web, and the number of e-mail
messages sent. Social involvement was measured by 4 different variables: family
communication, size of local social network, size of distant social network, and
social support. Family communication was assessed by asking participants to
estimate how many minutes they spent talking to each member of their family each
day. The size of the local and distant social networks was measured by asking
participants to indicate “the number of people in the Pittsburgh area whom you
socialize with at least once a month” and “the number of people outside of the
Pittsburgh area whom you seek out to talk with or to visit at least once a year.” The
Interpersonal Support Evaluation List was used to collect data on social support. In
terms of psychological well-being, the researchers chose to measure loneliness,
stress, and depression since these three areas have been associated with social
involvement. They utilized the UCLA Loneliness Scale for loneliness, the Hassles
Scale for stress, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
13
depression. These measures were administered prior to the initiation of the study
and at one and two year intervals after the families began their participation.
The researchers used path analysis to test the relationship between the
variables at three different time intervals - before the study began, while the study
was being conducted, and after the study culminated. Their results indicated that
greater use of the Internet was linked to small, but statistically significant,
decreases in social involvement (notably the family communication and size of
local social network) and increases in loneliness and depression. One of the most
compelling findings was that these effects were the most pronounced among the
teenage participants. The interaction of Internet use with age revealed that
increases in Internet usage were associated with increased loneliness and decreased
social support more for teenagers than for adults. Also, increases in Internet use
were linked to greater increases in stress for teenagers than for adults.
Kraut et al offered two hypotheses regarding the causal mechanisms
underlying this finding. The first causal explanation is the possible use of the
Internet as a displacement of social activity. They believed that individuals may be
substituting time on the Internet for time previously spent engaging in social
activities. In this respect, the Internet can be compared to watching television, or
other passive, nonsocial activities, and use of the Internet could lead to social
withdrawal and alienation. However, the authors noted that the Internet is often
used for social purposes and their results showed that Internet use was associated
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
14
with negative outcomes even when the Internet was being used in social ways (i.e.
for e-mail).
The second hypothesis proposed by the researchers to account for the
results speaks to the strength of on-line social relationships. They noted that many
on-line relationships seemed to be weaker than off-line relationships and suggested
that perhaps, by using the Internet, people are substituting poorer quality social
relationships for better relationships.
One critique of the Homenet study (Rierdan, 1999) questioned whether the
findings actually supported a link between the Internet and depression. Rierdan
challenged the use of the CES-D as a measure of depression by citing studies that
suggest the CES-D reflects general distress and not depression per se. In addition,
none of the participants in the study met clinical cutoffs for depression. In
Rierdan’s opinion, “these individuals had low levels of distress. As a group, they
were not depressed - before or after the study” (1999, pg. 781). Yet, the link
between the Internet and depression received the most media attention as
evidenced by the New York Times front page headline that read “Sad, Lonely
World Discovered in Cyberspace” (Harmon, 1998).
Further research has demonstrated a relationship between Internet addiction
and depression (Young & Rodgers, 1998). In a study by Young and Rodgers,
participants who were deemed “Internet addicts” used the Internet an average of 38
hours a week, while their non-addicted counterparts used the Internet
approximately 8 hours per week. Addicted Internet users had significantly lower
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
15
grades in school, more relationship difficulties, and reduced occupational
performance than nonaddicted users. In addition, Internet addicts reported mild to
moderate levels of depression on the Beck Depression Inventory compared to
normative data.
Sanders, Field, Diego, and Kaplan (2000) further investigated the link
between Internet use and depression and social isolation among adolescents.
Participants for this study were 89 high school seniors comprised of 37 males and
52 females. Level of Internet use was assessed by asking participants to respond to
the single question, “How many hours per day do you spend of the Internet?”
Those who selected “less than one hour a day” were classified as low users and
others who selected “more than two hours a day” were categorized as high users.
Participants also completed The Intimacy Scale to measure the quality of
relationships with parents and peers and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-
Depression Scale to measure depression. Results indicated that low Internet users
had significantly better relationships with their mothers and peers than high
Internet users. Level of Internet use was not significantly related to depression in
this study. Hence, these findings continue to support the link between frequent use
of the Internet and poorer social relationships among adolescents.
There is some evidence to suggest that the Internet and World Wide Web
are being used by children as a displacement of other social activities. Henke
(1999) conducted an exploratory study to examine whether the Web is being used
by children as a substitute for other media and non-media related activities.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
16
Participants for this study were 23 fourth grade students ranging in age from nine
to eleven. The sample was comprised of 12 girls and 11 boys. Participants
completed a pretest questionnaire called “Facts About Me” in which they were
asked to select their favorite after-school activities from the following choices:
play a sport, play a musical instrument, do homework, watch TV, play video
games, read, visit and play inside with friends or siblings, visit and play outside
with friends or siblings, use the computer, play with toys by myself, do art work, or
other. After completing the questionnaire the children participated in a hands-on
Internet session. Lastly, they completed a posttest questionnaire comprised of
questions assessing their enjoyment of the Internet and their preference for using
the Internet compared to their pre-selected favorite after-school activities. Results
indicated that 39% would prefer to surf the Net than participate in their favorite
after-school activity. The children who selected social activities as their favorite
were more likely to give them up to surf the Net than those who selected solitary
activities as their favorite. In fact, 79% of subjects said they would prefer to surf
the Net rather than play with friends or siblings inside and 89% said they would
prefer to surf the Net rather than play with friends or siblings outside. In contrast,
only 33% who chose reading as their favorite activity and 38% who chose playing
a musical instrument as their favorite activity indicated a preference for surfing the
Net than engaging in those hobbies.
Izenberg and Lieberman assert that the Internet has the potential for both
positive and negative implications for children’s health. More specifically, ‘‘the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
17
Internet, like every other communication medium, has the capacity to enlighten or
to waste time” (1998b, p. 398). They offered several strategies to combat
children’s use of the Internet as a displacement of other important activities. For
example, parents can teach their children to develop time management skills in the
context of Internet usage. In this way, children will learn how to set priorities and
organize their schedules to achieve important goals. By including children in the
decision-making process regarding the amount of time they can allot for Internet
use, parents can empower their children and facilitate the development of
responsibility. The authors did caution that excessive Internet use among
adolescents may be indicative of deeper social or emotional problems.
Internet Use and Social Skills
Research has shown that interaction with peers plays a crucial role in
children’s development of interpersonal skills and social competence (Griffiths,
1997). Selnow (1984) introduced the notion of “electronic friends” to describe
children who turned to video games for companionship instead of other children.
In 1997 Griffiths extended this concept to Internet users, suggesting that children
and adolescents may be using the Internet as friends instead of interacting with
their peers. The socially isolating use of computers as electronic friends has
negative implications for both children’s and adolescent’s development of social
skills.
The risks associated with use of the Internet tend to receive tremendous
attention, however there are several potential benefits of Internet use for children
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
18
and adolescents that are not widely publicized. Contrary to the notion of the
Internet as a device of social alienation and withdrawal, the Internet can provide a
forum in which children can practice social interactions. Communication on the
Internet differs from real-life exchanges in several ways. One of the most unique
features of Internet communication is that individuals can choose to communicate
with one another while concealed behind the protective cloak of anonymity
(McKenna & Bargh, 2000). The anonymity of Internet interactions may reduce the
anxiety commonly experienced by introverted or socially anxious youngsters and
allow them to practice on-line relationships (Bremer & Rauch, 1998). This
opportunity to engage in social interactions can serve to enhance social skills
acquisition. A question to be asked is: how does anonymous communication on the
Internet impact on social skills development?
When people are anonymous, their self-awareness is reduced and
deindividuation occurs. Deindividuation, though mainly associated with negative
behaviors, can have either positive or negative effects. Deindividuation causes
individuals to rely more on external, situational cues than on internal standards in
guiding their behavior. In relation to the Internet, deindividuation can lead people
to be more direct, blunt and straight-forward than they would be if they were not
anonymous. Research has shown that greater hostility, aggression, and
nonconforming behavior are more likely to occur in the context of computer-
mediated interactions than face to face exchanges (McKenna & Bargh, 2000).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
19
Chat rooms, which are Internet sites in which individuals can anonymously
engage in social interactions, have been attacked by the popular media as
dangerous territory for children and adolescents. They are seen as places where
child predators may be lurking. In response to this allegation, Bremer and Rauch
(1998) observed the discussion in America Online’s Kids Only and Teen chat
rooms for 321 minutes during the weekend and after-school hours. They recorded
the number of aggressive comments, sexual comments and curses. Results of this
study indicated that there was one aggressive comment per hour in Kids Only chat
rooms and two aggressive comments an hour in Teen chat rooms. In terms of
sexual comments, they found one sexual comment every 21 minutes in the Kids
Only rooms and one sexual comment every 4 minutes in Teen rooms. Curses
occurred the most frequently, with one curse every 15 minutes in Kids Only rooms
and one curse every 1.5 minutes in Teen rooms.
However, deindividuation can also have a positive effect. People who are
anxious in social situations have the freedom to take risks when communicating
with others on-line, which might lead them to reveal aspects of their true selves.
Izenberg and Lieberman (1998a) noted that “anonymity allows for more truthful
questions and responses. Online people (at least ideally) may be judged more by
the quality of their ideas and how they express them, and not so much by their age
or the way they look or behave. Preconceptions based on appearance, gender, race,
and age fade away in online discussions. People who would not be inclined to talk
with each other if they had met in person may discover some rewarding
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
20
interactions with people they have met online but have never seen” (pg. 337). This
feeling of security can have tremendous benefits for identity construction as well
as facilitate social skills development.
Turkle (1995) described the computer as a gateway that allows people to
forge connections with other people and to access places and information that were
previously inaccessible to them. The gateway can also serve as a mirror by helping
people with the search for the self. According to Turkle, the Internet is akin to an
experimental laboratory where people can try on different aspects of their
personality to see if they fit. In this capacity, the Internet facilitates identity and
role construction.
The World Wide Web can offer children a chance to communicate with
diverse individuals with whom they might not come into contact and provide them
with a wide array of opportunities to explore their interests (Druin & Platt, 1998).
As stated earlier, the Internet can also be a place where children can interface with
similar individuals in an anonymous way. The use of anonymity can have benefits
for children and adolescents exploring aspects of their identity, as illustrated by the
following quote from a ten year old boy:
One of the greatest things about the Internet is that no one has to know who you are... There have been times people my own age may not be interested in what I am interested in, and, at the same time, people who are older than I am, who might be interested, do not always want to spend time with someone so much younger than they are. But if you are on the Internet, things like age are unimportant - or invisible, anyway - if you want them to be. (Long,1994, p. 43).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
21
Bremer and Rauch (1998) observed that children and adolescents can assert
themselves on the Internet without fear of the consequences that would accompany
their actions in face to face interactions. In their observation of Teen and Kids
Only chat rooms, they noted that children set limits on one another more quickly
and directly than they would in real-life situations. The anonymity of the Internet
facilitated children's interactions by eliminating their fear of lasting social
consequences, such as alienating a classmate who would be encountered on a daily
basis.
Face to face social interactions are much more anxiety provoking for some
individuals than others. Socially anxious children and adolescents may be using the
Internet to practice interpersonal interactions or they may turn to the Internet as a
form of social withdrawal. The current investigation will explore the relationship
between Internet use and social withdrawal and social skills deficits in
adolescence. While previous studies have linked high levels of Internet usage with
loneliness and depression, the relationship between Internet use and social skills
deficits and social withdrawal has yet to be explored.
Earlier studies investigating the psychology of Internet usage have
classified Internet users according to their level of Internet use (i.e. high, low). The
present investigation differs from previous studies by considering not only the
frequency of Internet usage, but also the manner in which the Internet is being used
by adolescents (i.e. for social or non-social purposes) as these variables relate to
social development. In this way the results can help to distinguish between
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
22
adolescents who turn to the Internet as a mechanism of social avoidance and
withdrawal and those who seek social interaction via the Internet.
Statement o f Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Internet
use and various aspects of adolescent social development, which included limited
peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social introversion, isolation,
and social withdrawal. While previous studies have linked high levels of Internet
usage with loneliness and depression, this study attempted to identify a potential
cause of increased loneliness and depression by looking at the relationship between
Internet usage and social development. Children may be turning to the Internet due
to their discomfort with socializing with peers. The Internet may provide a safer
social environment for shy, socially anxious children, or it may provide a place for
socially avoidant children to circumvent social interactions altogether.
Earlier studies investigating the psychology of Internet usage have only
classified Internet users according to their level of Internet use (i.e. high, low).
Another way this study differed from previous studies was by considering not only
the frequency of Internet usage, but also the manner in which the Internet was
being used by adolescents as predictors of social withdrawal and social skills
deficits. In this way the results can help to distinguish between adolescents who
turn to the Internet as a mechanism of social avoidance and withdrawal and those
who seek social interaction via the Internet.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
23
Hypotheses
There were two main sets of hypotheses guiding this investigation - one
concerned the frequency of use of the Internet by adolescents and the other related
to the type of Internet use.
1) There will be a significant positive relationship between high levels of
Internet use and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills
Deficits.
2) There will be a significant positive relationship between high levels of
Internet use and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.
3) There will be a significant positive relationship between Asocial use of the
Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills
Deficits.
4) There will be a significant negative relationship between Social use of the
Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills
Deficits.
5) There will be a significant positive relationship between Asocial use of the
Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.
6) There will be a significant negative relationship between Social use of the
Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
24
METHOD
Participants
Participants for this study were 104 private school students in New York
City ranging froml3 to 18-years-old, with a mean age of 16. Fifty-five percent of
the participants were female (n=57) and 45% were male (n=47). The ethnic
composition of this sample of adolescents was 64% White (n=66), 13% Asian
(n=13), 11% Black (n=l 1), 11% Hispanic (n=l 1), and 3% Other (n=3). The data
collected for one participant were excluded from the statistical analysis because
this participant did not use the Internet outside of school.
Materials
Participants completed a survey created by the researcher entitled
“Activities Questionnaire for Students” (Appendix A). On this survey participants
were asked to provide demographic information, such as their age, gender, and
sibling information. Additional questions required participants to check off the
after-school or weekend activities in which they participate and to circle whether
they primarily engage in these activities by themselves or with others. The next
question required participants to rank order the amount of time they spend
engaging in each after-school or weekend activity. At this point the questionnaire
focused more specifically on participant’s use of the Internet. Questions in this
section asked if participants had access to the Internet outside of school, where
they access the Internet outside of school, how long they have had Internet access,
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
25
how many hours they spend on the Internet each day during a typical week, and
how many hours they spend on the Internet each day during a typical weekend.
From a list of choices, participants were asked to indicate which Internet activities
they engage in, and, for e-mail, chat rooms, instant messenger, and on-line games,
to circle whether they mostly interact with people they already know or with
people they met while on-line. Participants were asked to report the frequency of
their Internet activities in two different ways: first, by ranking their Internet
activities according to the amount of time spent on each and second, by assigning a
percent to the time spent on each Internet activity. This also served as a measure of
internal consistency. At the end of the questionnaire participants were asked to
respond to 42 true/false items taken from the Personality Inventory for Youth.
The Personality Inventory fo r Youth (PIY). The PIY was created by David
Lachar and Christian Gruber in 199S for use in the assessment of psychological
adjustment in children and adolescents ranging from 9 through 18 years of age.
The PIY is a self-report measure comprised of true-false statements that are written
at a third grade level. Many of the items on the PIY were taken from the Parent
Inventory for Children - Revised (PIC-R) and translated into a first person format.
There are a total of nine clinical scales on the PIY, which yield raw scores that can
be converted into T-scores with clinical cut-offs. Standardization of the PIY was
conducted on two samples, one of 2,327 regular education students and the other
of 1,178 clinically referred students.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
26
The present study utilized the Social Withdrawal and Social Skills Deficits
scales of the PIY (see Appendices B and C). These scales have demonstrated solid
psychometric properties. The Social Withdrawal scale is comprised o f two
subscales, Social Introversion and Isolation. Test-retest reliability for the overall
Withdrawal scale is .89, and it is .90 for Social Introversion and .74 for Isolation.
Internal consistency is .78 for the Withdrawal scale, .78 for the Social Introversion
subscale and .55 for the Isolation subscale. This scale is content valid as 14 of the
18 items came from the PIC-R. Construct validity has been established through
correlations with measures of social skills from the PIC-R.
The Social Skills scale is comprised of two subscales, Limited Peer Status
and Conflict with Peers. Internal consistency reliability was found to be .84 for the
Social Skills scale, .79 for Limited Peer Status, and .74 for Conflict with Peers.
Test-retest reliability was found to be .84 for the Social Skills Deficits scale, .85
for Limited Peer Status, and .74 for Conflict with Peers. Concurrent validity has
been established through correlations with the PEI Social Isolation scale (.45) and
an independent assessment of social support (-.43).
Procedure
Approval was obtained from the Pace University Research Review
Committee as well as the headmaster of a New York City private school to
conduct this study. Letters and permission forms were sent home to the parents of
the students providing a description of the study and requesting active informed
consent. Stamped envelopes were provided for the parents to mail the signed
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
27
permission forms directly back to the researcher. Students whose parents had
granted permission completed the Activities Questionnaire for Students during the
school day. The survey took approximately 15 minutes to complete. Participants
were asked to respond as truthfully as possible to all questions. They were assured
that their participation in this study was anonymous and voluntary and that anyone
could discontinue participation at any time without penalty should they feel
uncomfortable. Upon completion of the survey students were who interested in
receiving a brief summary of the research results provided contact information for
the researcher.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
28
RESULTS
Description o f the Sample
As stated earlier, all but one participant had access and used the Internet
outside of school. Regarding the location of Internet use, the vast majority of
participants used the Internet in their homes (see Table 1 below). Specifically, 99%
used the Internet at home, 45% used the Internet at a friend’s home, 27% used the
Internet at a relative’s home, 7% used the Internet at an Internet cafe, and 16%
used the Internet in other places.
Table I
Location o f Internet Use
Location of Internet Use Percent
Home 99%
Friend’s Home 45%
Relative’s Home 27%
Internet Cafe 7%
Other 16%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
29
An overwhelming majority of the participants had access to the Internet for at least
one year. Specifically, 89% of the participants had access to the Internet for more
than 2 years, 9% had Internet access for 1-2 years, and 2% obtained Internet access
less than one year ago (see Table 2 below).
Table 2
Length o f Internet Access
Length of Internet Access Percent
More than 2 years 89%
One - two years 9%
Less than one year 2%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
30
As reflected in Table 3 below, the following Internet activities were endorsed by
this sample: 99% used electronic mail, 87% went to sites on the World Wide Web,
34% participated in chat rooms, 81% communicated with others through Instant
Messenger, 36% played single player on-line games, 30% played multi-player on
line games, 18% posted messages to message boards/discussion groups, and 19%
engaged in other Internet activities, which included downloading music, shopping,
and creating web sites.
Table 3
Internet Activities
Internet Activities Percent
Electronic mail (E-mail) 99%
Go to sites on the World Wide Web 87%
Participate in Chat Rooms 34%
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger / Buddy Lists
81%
Play on-line games: Single Player 36%
Play on-line games: Multi-player (vs. human opponents)
30%
Post messages to Message Boards / Discussion Groups
18%
Other (Download music, shopping, etc.) 19%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
31
Table 4 lists various types of Internet communication and displays the nature of the
relationship between the participants in this sample and the persons with whom
they mostly communicate. Of the 98% of participants who used e-mail, 99%
interacted mostly with people they already knew. Of the 35% of the sample who
participated in chat rooms, 78% chatted mostly with people they met while on-line.
Of the 80% of the sample who used instant messenger, 98% communicated mostly
with people they already knew. Of the 31% of the sample who played on-line
games, 78% played against people they met while on-line (see Table 4 below).
Table 4
On-line Interactions
People I know People I met on-line
E-Mail 99% 1%
Chat Rooms 22% 78%
Instant Messenger 98% 2%
On-line games 22% 78%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
32
Frequency o f Internet Use. During the weekdays the majority of
participants, 38%, spent 1-2 hours per day on the Internet, 25% spent less than one
hour per day on the Internet, 15% spent 2-4 hours per day on the Internet, 13%
spent 4-6 hours per day on the Internet, and 9% spent more than 6 hours per day on
the Internet. During the weekends, 35% of participants spent 2-4 hours per day on
the Internet, 35% spent 1-2 hours per day on the Internet, 19% spent less than one
hour per day on the Internet, 8% spent 4-6 hours per day on the Internet, and 4%
spent more than 6 hours per day on the Internet (see Table 5 below). In order to
estimate each participant’s daily use of the Internet a weighted '"time on” variable
was created by adding weekday use and weekend use. The mean of the weighted
time on variable was 2.5.
Table 5
Frequency o f Internet Use
Weekday Internet Use Weekend Internet Use
Less than 1 hour a day 25% 19%
1-2 hours a day 38% 35%
2-4 hours a day 15% 35%
4-6 hours a day 13% 8%
More than 6 hours a day 9% 4%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
33
Type o f Internet Use. Type of Internet use was determined by examining
the rankings and percentages assigned to each particular Internet activity (see Table
6 below). The following list indicates the percentage of participants who ranked
each Internet activity as number one: Electronic Mail - 32%, Go to Sites on the
World Wide Web - 29%, Participate in Chat Rooms - 8%, Communicate with
others through Instant Messenger - 44%, Play single-player on-line games - 3%,
Play multi-player on-line games - 3%. Post messages to Message
Boards/Discussion Groups - 11%, Other 20%. The mean percentage of time
assigned to each Internet activity is as follows;: Electronic Mail - 30.17%, Go to
Sites on the World Wide Web - 29.91%, Participate in Chat Rooms - 13.46%,
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger - 34.80%, Play single-player
on-line games - 9.01%, Play multi-player on-line games - 12.68%, Post messages
to Message Boards/Discussion Groups - 12.47%, Other 22.0%.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
34
Table 6
Type o f Internet Use
Internet Activity Percent Ranked Internet Activity
as#l
Mean percentage of Total Internet time per Activity
Electronic mail (E-mail) 32% 30.17%
Go to sites on the World Wide Web 29% 29.91%
Participate in Chat Rooms 8% 13.46%
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger / Buddy Lists
44% 34.80%
Play on-line games: Single Player 3% 9.01%
Play on-line games: Multi-player (vs. human opponents)
3% 12.68%
Post messages to Message Boards / Discussion Groups
11% 12.47%
Other (Download music, shopping) 20% 22.00%
For the purpose of statistical analysis participants were divided into three
categories based upon the level of social interaction of their primary use of the
Internet (see Table 7 below). The participants’ primary use of the Internet was
determined by identifying the Internet activity selected as the most frequent online
activity, which was the Internet activity that was assigned a ranking of number one.
The Internet activities were then divided into three categories according to the
level of social involvement and three categories of Internet users were created: Not
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
35
Social users (surfed the Web and played single-player on-line games).
Asynchronous Social users (e-mailed and posted to message boards), and
Synchronous Social users (went into chat room, used instant messenger, and
played multi-player on-line games). Therefore, an individual who ranked “Instant
Messenger” as their top Internet activity would be classified as a Synchronous
Social Internet user and someone who ranked “Surf the World Wide Web” as their
number one Internet activity would be classified as a Not Social Internet user.
Participants who were deemed “Not Social” primarily engaged in solitary Internet
activities that did not put them into contact with other individuals. These activities
included going to sites on the World Wide Web and playing single player on-line
games. The “Not Social” category comprised 26% of the sample, and included 9
females and 18 males. Participants categorized as “Asynchronous Social”
primarily engaged in Internet activities in which they interacted with other
individuals in delayed time. Example of these activities were e-mailing and posting
messages to message boards/discussion groups. Thirty-four percent of this sample
was categorized as “Asynchronous Social” Internet users. There were 24 females
and 11 males in this category. Participants placed into the “Synchronous Social”
category primarily engaged in Internet activities in which they interacted with other
individuals in real time, approximating in vivo social interaction. These activities
included communicating with others through instant messenger, participating in
chat rooms, and playing multi-player on-line games against human opponents.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
36
40% of this sample was categorized as “Synchronous Social”, which included 23
females and IS males.
Table 7
Categories o f Internet Users
Type of Internet User Total Percent Number of Females Number of Males
Not Social 26% 9 18
Asynchronous Social 34% 24 11
Synchronous Social 40% 23 18
Analysis o f Hypotheses
Pearson product-moment calculations were performed to test the
relationships between frequency of Internet use and the six social development
variables, limited peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social
introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal, and between type of Internet use and
the aforementioned social development variables (see Table 8 below).
Hypothesis One. It was predicted that there would be a significant positive
relationship between high levels of Internet use and Limited Peer Status, Conflict
with Peers, and Social Skills Deficits. Contrary to prediction, a Pearson product-
moment correlation revealed that time spent on the Internet during the weekdays
was significantly negatively related to limited peer status (r (103) = -.207, p =
.036). Time spent on the Internet during the weekdays was not significantly related
to conflict with peers or social skills deficits. In addition, neither time spent on the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
37
Internet during the weekends nor the weighted variable for total time on the
Internet were significantly related to Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and
Social Skills Deficits.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
38
Table 8
Relationships between Internet Use and Social Development Variables
Limited Peer Status
C onflict with Peers
SocialSkills
DeficitsSocial
IntroversionIsolation Social
Withdrawal
W eekday Internet Use -21* .03 -.15 -.16 -.07 -.14
W eekend Internet U se .09 .08 .10 .06 .02 .06
Total Internet Use -.11 .06 -.06 -.08 -.04 -.08
ElectronicMail
.24* .18 .25* .24* .14 .24*
G o to W eb Sites
.29** .02 .23* .13 .08 .13
C hat Room s .37* .17 .35* -.01 .09 .05
InstantM essenger
-.25* -.06 -.20 -.26* -.15 -.25*
SinglePlayerGam es
-.11 -.01 -.09 .32 .06 .24
M ulti-playerGam es -.37* -.17 -.35 -.22 .04 -.11
Post to M essage Boards
.09 .26 .15 -.17 -.09 -M
O ther .57 -.01 .52 .06 -.06 .01
*p < .05. **p<. 01.
Note, n sizes range from 31 to 103 because they are based on the number o f individuals who engaged in each particular Internet activity. W hile 103 participants reported using the Internet during the weekday, only 3 1 participants reported playing multi-player on-line gam es.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
39
Hypothesis Two. Hypothesis Two predicted a significant positive
relationship between high levels of Internet use and Social Introversion, Isolation,
and Social Withdrawal. This hypothesis was not supported.
Hypothesis Three. A significant positive relationship between Asocial use
of the Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills
Deficits was predicted. To test these relationships correlations were calculated
between the percent of time spent on each Asocial Internet activity (going to Web
sites, playing single player on-line games) and the social development variables. In
support of the hypothesis, time spent going to sites on the World Wide Web was
significantly related to limited peer status ( r (91) = .286, p = .006) and social skills
deficits (r (91) = .225, p = .032). However, time spent on the World Wide Web
was not significantly related to Conflict with Peers. Time spent playing single
player on-line games was not significantly related to limited peer status, conflict
with peers, or social skills deficits.
Hypothesis Four. It was predicted that there would be a significant negative
relationship between Social use of the Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict
with Peers, and Social Skills Deficits. Pearson-product moment correlations were
calculated to determine the relationship between both the Asynchronous Social
Internet activities, the use of e-mail and posting messages to message boards, and
the Synchronous Social Internet activities, the use of Instant Messenger, chat
rooms, and playing multi-player on-line games, and the social development
variables. The results of the correlations based on Asynchronous Social Internet
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
40
activities were contrary to prediction. There was a significant positive relationship
between the use of e-mail and limited peer status (r (102) = .244, p = .013) and
social skills deficits (r (102) = .25, p - .011). The use of e-mail was not
significantly related to conflict with peers. The results for the correlations between
posting messages to message boards/discussion groups and limited peer status,
conflict with peers, and social skills deficits were not significant. The results of the
correlations based on Synchronous Social Internet activities were mixed. Contrary
to prediction, participation in chat rooms was significantly positively correlated
with limited peer status (r (35) = .372, p = .028) and social skills deficits (r (35) =
.353, p = .037). Chat room participation was not significantly related to conflict
with peers. In support of the hypothesis, the use of instant messenger was
significantly negatively related to limited peer status (r (82) = -.247, p = .025).
However, instant messenger use was not significantly related to conflict with peers
or social skills deficits. Playing multi-player on-line games was also significantly
negatively correlated with limited peer status (r (31) = -.37, p = .04) but was not
significantly related to conflict with peers or social skills deficits.
Hypothesis Five. The prediction of a significant positive relationship
between Asocial use of the Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social
Withdrawal was not supported. Surfing the World Wide Web and playing single
player on-line games were not significantly related to social introversion, isolation,
or social withdrawal.
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
41
Hypothesis Six. A significant negative relationship between Social use of
the Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal was
predicted. Again, both the Asynchronous Social and Synchronous Social Internet
activities were examined. The results of the correlations based on Asynchronous
Social Internet activities were contrary to prediction. There was a significant
positive relationship between the use of E-mail and social introversion (r (102) =
.236, p = .017) and social withdrawal (r (102) = .238, p = .016). However, time
spent posting messages to message boards/discussion groups was not significantly
related to social introversion, isolation, or social withdrawal. The results of the
correlations based on Synchronous Social Internet activities provided partial
support for the hypothesis. The use of Instant Messenger was significantly
negatively correlated with social introversion (r (82) = -.255, p = .021) and social
withdrawal (r (82) = -.248, p = .025). However, time spent in chat rooms and time
spent playing multi-player on-line games was not significantly related to social
introversion, isolation, or social withdrawal.
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
42
Additional Analyses
Several research studies suggest gender differences in adolescent
socialization (Denmark, Rabinowitz, & Sechzer, 2000). To further explore this
distinction, a gender by type of Internet use 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to
analyze group differences (see Table 9 below). A main effect was found for type of
Internet use for limited peer status (F(2, 100) = 7.60, p = .001), social skills
deficits (F(2, 100) = 6.36, p = .003), social introversion (F(2, 100) = 4.85, p = .01),
and social withdrawal (F(2,100) = 4.80, p = .01). No main effects were found for
gender and no interaction effects were found.
Table 9
F Ratios for Gender by Type o f Internet Use ANOVA for Social Development
Variables
Gender(G) Type of Internet Use (T) G x T
Limited Peer Status 0.05 7.60** 4.54
Conflict with Peers 0.45 1.51 0.23
Social Skills Deficits 0.19 6.36* 6.77
Social Introversion 0.18 4.85** 5.06
Isolation 0.17 1.60 0.09
Social Withdrawal 0.01 4.80** 0.43*p< .05. **/;<.01.
Post-hoc analyses were conducted to determine differences between
specific types of Internet users (see Table 10 below). Participants who were “Not
Social” Internet users had significantly higher scores on Limited Peer Status than
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
43
participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users (Tukey = 2.78, p =
.001). Participants who were “Asynchronous Social” Internet users also had
significantly higher scores on Limited Peer Status than participants who were
“Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey = 1.83, p = .032). Participants who
were “Not Social” Internet users had significantly higher scores on Social Skills
Deficits than participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey =
3.44,p = .004). Participants who were “Not Social” Internet users had significantly
higher scores on Social Introversion than participants who were “Synchronous
Social” Internet users {Tukey = 1.54, p = .014). Participants who were “Not Social”
Internet users had significantly higher scores on Social Withdrawal than
participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey = 2.20, p =
.014).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
44
Table 10
Social Development Variables by Type o f Internet Use
Not Social AsynchronousSocial
Synchronous Social
Limited Peer Status 5.94a 4.95a 2.99b
Conflict with Peers 2.00a 1.59a 1.26*
Social Skills Deficits
7.94a 6.53 4.25b
Social Introversion 2.50a 2.07 0.89b
Isolation 2.1 Ia 1.84, 1.42a
Social Withdrawal 4.61 a 3.91 2.31b
Note. Means having the same subscript are not significantly different at p < .05 in the Tukey honestly significant difference comparison.
An additional exploratory analysis was conducted to investigate whether
racial/ethnic differences were related to the various categories of Internet users. A
one-way ANOVA found no significant differences.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
45
DISCUSSION
The present investigation sought to examine the relationship between use
of the Internet and social development in adolescence. This exploration is
particularly timely in light of the vast expansion of the Internet in our society and
the numerous questions and concerns that have arisen relating to the impact of this
technology on our lives. The Internet is a powerful medium that is changing the
shape of everyday life, from the way research is conducted to the way items are
purchased. The Internet is simultaneously a source of news and entertainment, the
world's largest shopping mall, a valuable resource of limitless information, an
arena for business transactions, as well as a means through which individuals can
communicate with one another. As such, it holds the power to either isolate
individuals from one another or bring them closer together, depending on the way
that it is used. Several different methods of communication are available on the
Internet, including electronic mail, instant messenger, chat rooms, and discussion
groups. These forms of communication differ from traditional social exchanges in
several ways. The most obvious distinction is that online interactions lack the
visual, auditory, and other sensory cues present during face-to-face interactions. In
addition, some forms of online communication, such as e-mail and message
boards, occur in a deferred time format, allowing individuals additional time to
ponder their responses and select their words with greater care and precision than
is generally acceptable in in vivo interactions. Other forms of online
communication, such as instant messenger and chat rooms, more closely resemble
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
46
in-person social interactions since they occur in real-time and permit individuals to
instantly respond to one another. However, these forms of social exchange still
lack the sensory cues present during face-to-face contacts. An additional feature of
online communication that sets it apart from traditional social interaction is that
individuals can choose to conceal their identities and remain anonymous while on
the Internet. The anonymity of online communication certainly holds significant
implications for the way individuals meet and present themselves to one another.
Since the developmental stage of adolescence is such a crucial period for social
development, it is important to examine how the rapid expansion of Internet use
and the different types of social interactions widely available to today’s teenagers
are related to the acquisition and growth of social competencies during this time.
Results of this study showed that, for the most part, the amount of time
spent on the Internet was not related to poor social development outcomes,
including limited peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social
introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal. The only significant finding
regarding time spent on the Internet showed that the more time spent on the
Internet during the week, the higher an individual’s peer status. Hence, this finding
contradicts previous research that linked high levels of Internet use with poor
social development (Sanders et al, 2000). In fact, according to these results, the
teenagers who spend the most time online are the most popular. It seems that in
today’s society, Internet use has become so commonplace among teenagers that
large quantities of time spent online alone does not necessarily signify poor social
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
development. Perhaps the initial studies on the correlates of Internet use conducted
just a few years ago no longer capture an accurate portrayal of today’s Internet
user. As demonstrated by statistics, Internet access has grown so rapidly with each
passing year that the Internet user of two years ago may be different than today's
online user. In any event, the present study found that knowledge of the number of
hours an individual spends on the Internet is not a particularly good indicator of
level of social development.
The present study was unique in that it went beyond a simple look at the
amount of time adolescents spend on the Internet. In an attempt to gain a greater
understanding of the function the Internet serves in the lives of today’s teens, this
study delved into the world of cyberspace by asking adolescents to identify the
specific Internet activities in which they participate. Results showed that the type
of Internet activities in which adolescents partake did prove to be related to social
development. Adolescents who spent the majority of their Internet time engaged in
solitary activities had lower peer status, greater social skills deficits, were more
socially introverted, and more socially withdrawn than adolescents who spent their
Internet time engaged in social exchanges with others. Thus, the adolescents who
primarily used the Internet to surf the World Wide Web or play single player on
line games selected Internet activities that do not require interactions with other
humans. This result supports the belief that socially anxious adolescents may be
turning to the Internet as a place to escape from social interaction. Introverted
youngsters may naturally gravitate towards non-social Internet activities because
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
48
they feel insecure and anxious around people and more comfortable in the world of
cyberspace, devoid of contact with others. These teenagers were found to possess
social skills deficits. Their poor social skills may contribute to their anxiety and
discomfort in social situations and lead them to participate in solitary Internet
activities. However, non-social Internet activities do not provide these adolescents
with opportunities to develop their social skills, creating a vicious cycle of social
difficulties.
One surprising result of this study was that adolescents who interact with
others on the Internet in delayed time, such as those whose primary Internet
activity is e-mail, had lower peer status, greater social skills deficits, were more
socially introverted, and more socially withdrawn than their counterparts who
primarily use the Internet for real-time social interactions. This finding suggests
that asynchronous social interaction on the Internet, while it does permit
individuals to communicate with one another, is preferred by introverted
individuals. Deferred time Internet contact is much less threatening than both real
time Internet exchanges and face-to-face social contacts. When operating in real
time on the Internet, individuals are called upon to think quickly to keep up with
the pace of the conversation. In addition, the lack of visual cues in Internet social
exchanges may impair an individual’s ability to read social situations and respond
appropriately. Therefore, delayed social interaction on the Internet seems to be
more comfortable for those adolescents who are socially anxious, socially
withdrawn, and socially inexperienced.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
49
In general, adolescents who primarily use the Internet to connect with other
individuals in real-time social exchanges had higher peer status, fewer social skills
deficits, were less socially introverted, and less socially withdrawn than their
counterparts whose primary Internet use is solitary. However, one interesting result
was discovered when looking specifically at the use of Chat Rooms. A significant
relationship was found between the use of Chat Rooms and limited peer status and
social skills deficits. This finding supports the notion that Chat Rooms provide a
safe forum for less socially adept adolescents to practice social interactions.
While gender was not significantly related to type of Internet use or social
development, an interesting trend was noticed when examining the gender
breakdown of categories of Internet users. There were twice as many males as
females in the category of “Not Social” Internet Users, which conforms to the
stereotypical view that females are more relational and connected to people than
males who are more independent and isolated from people.
Limitations
Several limitations of this study should be noted. One limitation of this
study concerns the generalizability of the results. Since participants all have access
to the Internet at home, the results cannot be generalized to children who do not
have computers at home. In addition, the Internet feature “Instant Messenger” does
not come as part of the package with many on-line providers. Instant Messenger
can be purchased and installed for an additional fee. The majority o f these
respondents had access to instant messenger, so they may come from higher
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
50
socioeconomic classes than other adolescents who do not have access to this
program. As private school students, the participants in this sample may represent
a distinct group of adolescents and therefore the findings cannot be extended to
apply to other samples.
In addition, the use of self-report measures introduces the possibility that
the data collected may not be completely accurate. The participants may have had
difficulty estimating their Internet use, which would affect the categories into
which they were placed for data analysis. In addition, response bias may have
occurred if individuals chose to respond in socially desirable ways so as to present
a favorable picture o f themselves to the researcher. Adolescents who are socially
withdrawn or limited in social skills may have been inclined to deny these social
difficulties when responding to items on the PIY. In addition, some respondents
may have less time on the Internet or not admitted to Chat Rooms for fear of a
social stigma attached to them. Lastly, due to the correlational nature of the
research design, causal statements cannot be applied to the results.
Implications for School-Clinical Child Psychology
Results of this investigation can be useful for school and child clinical
psychologists. By working closely with children and adolescents, school and child
clinical psychologists are poised to pick up on early warning signs that may point
to more serious psychological problems in later life. As reviewed earlier, socially
withdrawn and socially anxious children are at-risk for poor psychological
outcomes, which may include difficulty attaining educational success, keeping
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
51
stable jobs, maintaining relationships with others, and achieving financial stability
(Liebowitz, 1999). Social withdrawal in childhood is also believed to impede the
development of social skills, thwart the establishment of fhendships, and diminish
self-esteem (Rubin, LeMare & Lollis 1990). Since socially withdrawn youngsters
are at-risk for internalizing disorders and other negative outcomes, it is important
for psychologists to heed the warning signs of social withdrawal and work with
parents and adolescents early on to facilitate healthy social and psychological
development. Psychologists can inquire about an individual's Internet use to gain
some insight into their social development. According to the results of this study,
adolescents who spend large quantities of time on the Internet are not necessarily
lacking in social skills or hiding away in cyberspace. Rather, it is those adolescents
who are mostly using the Internet to avoid social interaction or to interact with
others in delayed time who are at greater risk for poor social development.
Areas fo r Further Research
As the Internet continues to play an increasingly large role in the lives of
today’s adolescents, it is important to gather information concerning exactly how
the Internet is being used by this population and to determine the impact o f Internet
use on adolescent social development. To increase the accuracy of self-reported
Internet use, future researchers may want to utilize more sophisticated measuring
instruments or request that participants keep a log of their specific Internet use. It
is also important that future researchers examine the Internet use of individuals
from all socioeconomic levels, not just students in private schools.
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
52
Future research could examine how the Internet is used by children at
different stages of development. For example, how does the Internet use of latency
age children differ from the Internet activities of adolescents? Additional studies
might delve into particular online experiences, such as adolescent's participation in
chat rooms, to gain a deeper understanding of the psychology of these individuals.
It is important to investigate the many different functions of Internet use, so that
the benefits and potential dangers of Internet use can be accurately identified.
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
53
References
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual o f Mental Disorders ( f h Ed.) Washington D.C.: Author.
Asher, S.R., Renshaw, P.D., & Hymel, S. (1982). Peer relations and the
development of social skills. In S.G. Moore (Ed.), The young child: Reviews o f
research (Vol. 3). Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of
Young Children.
Barber, B.K., & Erickson. L.D. (2001). Adolescent social initiative:
Antecedents in the ecology of social connections. Journal o f Adolescent Research,
16(4), 326-355.
Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence
in children. Youth & Society, 9(3), 239-276.
Beidel, D.C. (1998). Social anxiety disorder: Etiology and early clinical
presentation. Journal o f Clinical Psychiatry, 59,27-31.
Bremer, J., & Rauch, P.K. (1998). Children and computers: Risks and
benefits. Journal ofthe American Academy o f Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
37(5), 559-560.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(\), 155-
159.
Crocenkenberg, S., Jackson, S., & Langrock, A.M. (1996). Autonomy and
goal attainment: Parenting, gender, and children’s social competence. New
Directions for Child Development, 73,41-55.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
54
Denmark, F., Rabinowitz, V., & Sechzer, J. (2000). Engendering
Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Druin, A., & Platt, M. (1998). Children’s online environments. In C.
Forsythe, E. Grose, & J. Ratner (Eds.), Human Factors and Web Development (pp.
75-85). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Finger, J., & Silverman, M. (1966). Changes in academic performance in
the junior high school. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 45, 157-164.
Garmezy, N. (1971). Vulnerability research and the issue of primary
prevention. American Journal o f Orthopsychiatry, 41, 101-116.
Griffiths, M. (1997). Friendship and social development in children and
adolescents: The impact of electronic technology. Educational and Child
Psychology, 14(3), 25-37.
Harmon, A. (1998, August 30). Sad, lonely world discovered in
cyberspace. New York Times, p. 1.
Hartup, W.W. (1993). Adolescents and their friends. In B. Laursen (Ed.),
Close friendships in adolescence: New directions for child development. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Henke, L.L. (1999). Children, advertising, and the Internet: An exploratory
study. In D.W. Schumann & E. Thorson (Eds.), Advertising and the World Wide
Web. Advertising and Consumer Psychology (pp. 73-80). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Hymel, S., Rubin, K.H., Rowden, R., & LeMare, L. (1990). Children’s peer
relationships: Longitudinal predictions of internalizing and externalizing problems
from middle to late childhood. Child Development, 61,2004-2021.
Izenberg, N., & Lieberman, D.A. (1998a). The web, communication trends,
and children’s health: Part 4: How children use the web. Clinical Pediatrics, 37,
335-340.
Izenberg, N., & Lieberman, D.A. (1998b). The web, communication trends,
and children’s health. Part 5: Encouraging positive and safe Internet use. Clinical
Pediatrics, 37 ,397-404.
Kafai, Y.B., & Sutton, S. (1999). Elementary school students’ computer
and Internet use at home: Current trends and issues. Journal o f Educational
Computing Research, 2/(3), 345-362.
Kraut, M., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., &
Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social
involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017-
1031.
Lachar, D., & Gruber, C.P. (1995). Personality Inventory fo r Youth (PIY):
Technical Manual. Western Psychological Services.
Last, C.G., Strauss, C.C., & Francis, G. (1987). Comorbidity among
childhood anxiety disorders. Journal o f Nervous Mental Disorders, 175, 726-730.
Laursen, B. (1996). Closeness and conflict in adolescent peer relationships:
Interdependence with friends and romantic partners. In W. M. Bukowski, A.F.
perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
56
Newcomb, & W.W. Hartup (Eds.), The Company they Keep: Friendship in
Childhood and Adolescence (pp. 186-210). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Leary, M.R. (1991). Social anxiety, shyness, and related constructs. In J.P.
Robinson, P.R. Shaver, & L.S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures o f Personality and
Social Psychological Attitudes (pp. 177-194). New York: Academic Press, Inc.
Leland, J. (2000, September 25). Family's choices can blunt the effect of
video violence. New York Times, pp. Al, A25.
Levendosky, A.A., Okun. A., & Parker, J.G. (1995). Depression and
maltreatment as predictors of social competence and social problem-solving skills
in school-age children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79(10), 1183-1195.
Levitt, M.J., Guacci-Franco, N., & Levitt, J.L. (1993). Convoys of social
support in childhood and early adolescence: Structure and function. Developmental
Psychology, 29,811 -818.
Liebowitz, M.R. (1999). Update on the diagnosis and treatment of social
anxiety disorder. Journal o f Clinical Psychiatry, 60,22-26.
Long, M. (1994). We are the world. In Netguide (pp. 43-47). New York:
CMP Media.
McGhee, R., & Williams, S. (1991). Social competence in adolescence:
Preliminary findings from a longitudinal study of New Zealand 15-year-olds.
Psychiatry, 54,281-291.
Reproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
57
McKenna, K.Y.A., & Bargh, J.A. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The
implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and
Social Psychology Review, 4(1), 57-75.
Mom-and-pop.com (2002, May 13). Newsweek: 40P.
Pandina, R.J., Labouvie, E.W., Johnson, V., & Raskin White, H. (1990).
The relationship between alcohol and marijuana use and competence in
adolescence. Journal o f Health & Social Policy, 1(3), 89-108.
Reisman, J.M., & Shorn S.I. (1978). Friendship claims and expectations
among children and adults. Child Development, 49 ,913-916.
Rierdan, J. (1999). Intemet-depression link? American Psychologist, 54(9).
781-782.
Rubin, K.H., & Coplan, R. (1992). Peer relationships in childhood. In M.
Bomstein & M. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rubin, K.H., LeMare, L.J., & Lollis, S. (1990). Social withdrawal in
childhood: Developmental pathways to peer rejection. In S.R. Asher & J.D. Cole
(Eds.), Peer Rejection in Childhood (pp. 217-249). Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, K.H., & Mills, R.S.L. (1991). Conceptualizing developmental
pathway to internalizing disorders in childhood. Canadian Journal o f Behavioral
Science, 23 ,300-317.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
58
Sanders, C.E., Field, T.M., Diego, M., & Kaplan, M. (2000). The
relationship of Internet use to depression and social isolation among adolescents.
Adolescence, 35 ,237-242.
Schaeffer, H.R. (1996). Social Development. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell
Publishers.
Scheier, L.M., & Botvin. G.J. (1998). Relations of social skills, personal
competence and adolescent alcohol use: A developmental exploratory study.
Journal o f Early Adolescence, 18(\), 77-114.
Selnow, G.W. (1984). Playing video games: The electronic friend. Journal
o f Communication, 34, 148-156.
Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The Interpersonal Theory o f Psychiatry. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company Inc.
Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The rise o f the net generation.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Thomas, K. (2001, September 6). Kids boost home use of Internet: Half of
households now have computer. USA Today. I0D.
Thomas, K. (2001, June 21). Online teens are instantly in touch. USA
Today: ID.
Thomas, K. (2002, January 23). Plugged-in Pittsburgh kids online the most.
USA Today: 3D.
Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the Age o f the Internet.
New York: Simon & Schuster.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
59
Turow, J., & Nir, L. (2000, May 16). The Internet and the family 2000: The
view from parents, the view from kids. Annenberg Public Policy Center o f the
University o f Pennsylvania, wuw.appcpenn.org
Ubois, J. (2002, April 16). Changes and challenges: The Internet at 33.
Consumer Web Watch News, wuw.consumerwebwatch.org.
U.S. Department of Commerce (2000). Falling through the net: Towards
Digital Inclusion.
Vemberg, E.M., Abwender, D.A., Ewell, K.K., & Beery, S.H. (1992).
Social anxiety and peer relationships in early adolescence: A prospective analysis.
Journal o f Clinical Child Psychology, 2/(2), 189-196.
Woodard, E.H., & Gridina, N. (2000). Media in the home 2000. Annenberg
Public Policy Center o f the University o f Pennsylvania. www.appcpenn.org
Young, K.S., & Rodgers, R.C. (1998). The relationship between depression
and Internet addiction. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(1)
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
60
Appendix A.
Activities Questionnaire for Students
Gender: Female Male
Age: ______
Grade:______
Ethnicity/Race: Asian Black Hispanic White
Other (please specify)_________________________
Siblings: (please check and fill in how many sisters or brothers you have)
I am an only child
I have sisters
I have brothers
1. Which after-school or weekend activities do you participate in? (please check
all that apply and circle whether you do this activity primarily by yourself or
with others, when relevant)
Play a sport By Myself With Others
Play a musical instrument By Myself With Others
Do homework By Myself With Others
Watch television By Myself With Others
Exercise By Myself With Others
Play video games By Myself With Others
Read (books, magazines) By Myself With Others
Do artwork By Myself With Others
Talk on the telephone
Hang out with friends (Go to movies, shopping, etc.)
Computer/Internet
Other (please specify)_______________________
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
61
2. Place the following after-school activities in order according to the amount of time
that you spend on each every week (1 = the most time, 2 = the next highest, etc.)
Play a sport
Play a musical instrument
Do homework
Watch television
Exercise
Play video games
Read (books, magazines)
Do artwork
Talk on the telephone
Hang out with friends (Go to movies, shopping, etc.)
Computer/Internet
Other (please specify)________________________________________
3. Do you use a computer to access the Internet outside of school? Yes No
If you answered YES to question 3, please answer all the remaining questions.
If you answered NO to question 3, please skip ahead to question 12.
4. Where do you access the Internet outside of school? (check all that apply)
At home
At a friend’s home
At a relative’s home
Internet cafe
Other (please specify)____________________________________
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
62
5. How long have you had Internet access outside of school?
Less than 1 year
1 - 2 years
More than 2 years
6. During a typical week, approximately how many hours did you spend on the
Internet each day after school? (Monday - Friday)
Less than 1 hour
1-2 hours
2-4 hours
4-6 hours
More than 6 hours
7. During a typical weekend, approximately how many hours did you spend on the
Internet each day? (Saturday - Sunday)
.Less than 1 hour
1-2 hours
2-4 hours
4-6 hours
More than 6 hours
8. Which of the following Internet activities do you engage in: (check all that apply)
Electronic mail (E-mail)
Go to sites on the World Wide Web (news, entertainment, sports)
Participate in Chat Rooms
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger/Buddy Lists
Play on-line games: single player
Play on-line games: multi-player (vs. human opponents)
Post messages to Message Boards/Discussion Groups
Other (please specify)_________________________________________
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
63
9. For the following Internet activities, circle whether you mostly interact with
people you already know or with people who you met while on-line:
Chat Rooms
Instant Messenger
On-line games
People I know
People I know
People I know
People I know
People I met on-line
People I met on-line
People I met on-line
People I met on-line
10. Place the following Internet activities in order according to the amount of time
that you spend on each during a typical week (1 = the most time, 2 = next highest)
_______Electronic mail
Go to sites on the World Wide Web (news, entertainment, sports)
Participate in Chat Rooms
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger/Buddy Lists
Play on-line games: Single player
Play on-line games: Multi-player (vs. human opponents)
Post messages to Message Boards/Discussion Groups
Other (please specify)_________________________________________
11. Regardless of hours, indicate the percent of time you spent on each Internet
activity during a typical week (Note: The total should equal 100%)
_______Electronic mail
Go to sites on the World Wide Web (news, entertainment, sports)
Participate in Chat Rooms
Communicate with others through Instant Messenger/Buddy Lists
Play on-line games: Single player
Play on-line games: Multi-player (vs. human opponents)
Post messages to Message Boards/Discussion Groups
Other (please specify)__________________________________________
= 100%
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
64
Appendix B.
PERSONALITY INVENTORY FOR YOUTH
Social Skill* Deficit Scale
SSK1 - Limited Peer Status:
1. I often spend time with a group of other kids.
2. I have many friends of the opposite sex.
3. I am a good leader.
4. I like to play active games and sports.
5. I have more friends than most other kids.
6. I am a follower, not a leader.
7. Other kids look up to me as a leader.
8. Other people say that I have a lot of personality.
9. I am very popular with other kids.
10.1 am often a leader in groups.
11.1 often bring friends home.
12. People always listen when I speak.
13.1 am sure of myself in a group.
SSK2 - Conflict with Peers:
14.1 have many friends.
15. Other kids do not seem to listen to me or notice me much.
16.1 do not get along with the other students at school.
17.1 have very few friends.
18.1 am often rejected by other kids.
19. Other kids are often angry with me.
20.1 get along well with others most of the time.
21.1 prefer adults to other kids.
22. Other kids make fun of my ideas.
23 .1 seem to get along with everyone.
24 .1 wish that I were more able to make and keep friends.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
65
Appendix C.
PERSONALITY INVENTORY FOR YOUTH
Social Withdrawal Scale
WDL1 - Social Introversion
1. Talking to others makes me nervous.
2. Speaking up is a problem for me.
3. Shyness if my biggest problem.
4 .1 am shy with kids my own age.
5 .1 hardly ever talk.
6 .1 am often embarrassed.
7. Most of the time I am a quiet person.
8 .1 am shy with adults.
9 .1 am often afraid to meet new people.
10.1 am not at ease when I am with strangers.
WDL2 - Isolation
11. Except for going to school, I often stay in the house for days at a time.
12.1 do not like to be close to others.
13.1 often stay in my room for hours.
14.1 often take walks alone.
15.1 do not enjoy being with others.
16.1 have no true friend.
17.1 almost always play alone.
18.1 keep my thoughts to myself.
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
66
Appendix D. Informed Consent
Dear Parent(s),
I am a doctoral student in Pace University’s School/Clinical Child psychology program. This letter is to request your consent for your child to participate in a research project I am conducting at the XXX School.
For my dissertation I have chosen to conduct research about the different types of activities that teenagers enjoy. I am interested in learning about both the activities that teenagers engage in as well as whether teenagers prefer to do things by themselves or with others. In order to participate, students at the XXX School will be asked to fill out a survey that asks questions about the type of activities that they typically engage in and about their preference for being alone or with others. The questionnaire will be administered during the school day and should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. Your child will also be asked to sign a consent sheet indicating their willingness to participate in the study.
The decision whether to grant permission for your child to participate in this study is your choice. Participation is not mandatory and your child will not be penalized if she or he does not participate. The information collected will be completely anonymous and your name and your child’s name will not appear anywhere on the study.
Please complete and sign the consent form at the bottom of this sheet and mail it directly to me in the envelope provided. If you have any further questions feel free to contact me by e-mail (listed above). I will be coming to the XXX School to conduct this research project within the next two weeks so I would greatly appreciate your response as soon as possible.
Thank you very much for your cooperation. I hope that the results of my study will make a significant contribution to our understanding of today’s teenagers.
Sincerely,
Erica Heitner, M.S.Ed.
□ Yes, I give permission for my daughter/son,______________________(Please print name)
to participate in the above mentioned research study.
□ No, I do not give permission for my daughter/son,_________________(Please print name)
to participate in the above mentioned research study.
Parent’s Signature Date
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.