BIOMONITORING KUALITAS UDARAMinggu ke-5

Causes?

• The first major human influence on the environment was perhaps agriculture, and later the industrial revolution…

• Many countries have a legacy of pollution and polluted sites.

Decline of Veitch’s silver fir and maries fir. Japan(courtesy of T. Izuta)

Air pollutant

• Point sources • Non point sources

Why use Biomonitoring• Due to the relatively rapid movement of air

masses it can be difficult to effectively monitor the concentrations of toxic contaminants in air to gain an effective picture of contaminant levels.

• This method is attractive in that it provides integration over time rather than requiring expensive operation and maintenance of ambient air sampling equipment.

• Provide a long term (months - years) integrative picture of the presence of toxic contaminants in air.

Limitation

• Potential disadvantage of being biased by local sources

• Cannot provide any information on the nature of short term peaks,

• Potentially suffers for confounding effects due to differing absorption rates due to undetermined factors.

Description

• 1. A fungus, usually of the class Ascomycetes, that grows symbiotically with algae, resulting in a composite organism that characteristically forms a crustlike or branching growth on rocks or tree trunks.

• 2. Pathology Any of various skin diseases characterized by patchy eruptions of small, firm papules.

Definition• A lichen is a symbiotic association between an alga and a fungus – in

other words, each lichen is not one organism but two. Lichens grow very slowly, usually as encrustations on rocks, walls, or wood.

• They are found throughout the world but are unable to survive where the atmosphere is polluted, so they are good indicators of clean air. lichen

• Some lichens are edible, for example, reindeer moss and Iceland

moss; others are a source of colour dyes, such as litmus, or are used in medicine. They are sensitive to pollution in the air .

BIOINDICATORS• Bioindicator organisms are those that can

be used to identify and quantify the effects of pollutants on the environment.

• Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between an

alga and fungus and are particularly sensitive to air pollutants and have been used widely used as bioindicators of air quality (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001)

• Honey bees have been used as a bioindicator for the contamination of the atmosphere by heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, and lead).

Stomatal flux/uptake/deposition

Non-stomatal flux/uptake/deposition

External plantsurfaces

Soil

Air pollutantGas, particle, aerosol, solute

Direct

Indirect

Pollutant Impact mode Impact Scale

Ozone (O3) Direct (stomates) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions, chemical quality

Regional

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)Direct (stomates & cuticle) Indirect

* Visible injury, growth & yield reductions Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions)

Local Regional

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

Direct (stomates) Indirect

* Growth & yield reductions Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions)

Local Regional

Hydrogen Fluorides (HF)

Direct (stomates & cuticle)

Visible injury, growth & yield reductions.Fluorosis in grazing animals

Local

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

Direct **Phytotoxicity, abrasive action, reduced light transmission, occlusion of stomates

Local / Regional

* At low concentrations can stimulate growth via fertilization effect** Dependant upon chemical composition of particles

lisa.emberson@sei.se

• The international ports of entry in the El Paso, TX/Ciudad Juarez, Mexico border region are a significant source of air pollutants due to a high vehicular traffic

Air Quality Biomonitoring

• Jason G. Parsons, Tenoch Benitez, Jose R. Peralta-Videa, Alejandro Martinez, Rafael Corral, Roberto Hurtado, and Jorge Gardea-Torresdey

• The Department of Chemistry at the University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso TX, 79968

Chelating Agents

• Chemical compounds

which create complexes with heavy metals, therefore increasing their bioavailability for living organisms to consume (e.g. plants).

Methodology

Methodology

• Tumbleweed seeds were collected around El Paso, TX from a site that does not have any previous report on metal contamination.

• Seeds sown in black plastic bags

• Three month old plants were misted with the chelating agents and placed at the bridges over a four week period.

Experiment Setting

Sample processing

• The aerial portion of the plants were then collect, dried and weighed.

• The weighed samples were microwave digested using the EPA method 3051.

Element determination

• The samples were analyzed for elemental content using a Perkin Elmer Elan DRCII ICP-MS

Metal Uptake in Tumbleweed plants without chelating agents

Metal content in shoots of plants treated with 0.1 M EDTA and 0.1 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate

Metal content in shoots of plants treated with 0.5 M EDTA and 0.5 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate

Metal content in shoots of plants treated with 1.0 M EDTA and 1.0 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate

Conclusions

• The concentrations of metals deposited in plant shoots appeared to be related to the relative amounts of traffic at each of the sampling sites (higher at Zaragoza and lower at Santa Teresa).

• There were no effects of the concentration of chelating agents upon the accumulation of metals on tumbleweed shoots.

• The data showed that Tumbleweed plants have the capability to be used for the biomonitoring of heavy metals from polluted air.

Ozone biomonitoring

Understanding the Ozone Indicator

• Why do we care about ozone and forest health?• What is biomonitoring?• Why is it important? Who uses the data?• What are the field procedures?• How is the data summarized and reported?

Ozone Injures Trees

Ponderosa pine stand Paul Miller and crew

1. More than 35 tree species have been identified as ozone sensitive based on foliar injury symptoms.

Ponderosa pine - CA

ozone sensitive black cherry in Vermont

2. In the field, symptoms are prevalent both on young trees and in the canopies of mature trees.

ozone sensitive aspen clone

3. Ozone can affect the genetic base of sensitive species through the elimination of sensitive clones and hypersensitive genotypes.

4. Ozone can reduce carbon fixation, increase foliar and root respiration, shift the partitioning of carbon into different chemical forms and disrupt carbon and nutrient allocation patterns.

Full crown on black cherry and, same tree, showing ozone-induced premature defoliation later on in the growing season (Pennsylvania).

5. Small decreases in net photosynthesis or other growth-related processes compounded over the long life span of a tree may produce significant growth reductions or translate into large changes in stand dynamics, even if effects go undetected in the short-term due to the inherent complexity and variability of natural systems.

6. In the mixed conifer type in southern California, the elimination of ozone sensitive pines has led to an increase in ozone tolerant species characterized by thinner bark and branches close to the ground. This, in turn, presents a fuel ladder situation that jeopardizes the residual stand in the event of a catastrophic fire.

Tree →→→ ecosystem effect

What is Biomonitoring?Ozone sensitive plants (bioindicators) act as detectors of ozone pollution. Detection is based on a visible foliar response that is produced as ozone enters plant leaves through open stomates during the normal process of gas exchange. Once inside the leaf, ozone changes membrane permeability leading to cell death and the appearance of characteristic symptoms on the leaf surface.

Chlorotic mottle on ponderosa pine; classic ozone stipple on sassafras; and premature fall coloration on sweetgum.

Bioindication

Ozone bioindicators provide evidence of plant stress. They tell us not only that ozone concentrations were elevated for a particular time and place, but also that other necessary conditions for ozone uptake and injury (e.g., adequate light, nutrition, and moisture) were also present.

In this context, the foliar response of ozone bioindicator plants is used to determine the presence or absence of ozone injury conditions on the biomonitoring plots.

Biomonitoring

A quantitative assessment of bioindicator response is provided by the plot-level ozone injury index (biosite index). The index is formulated from the injury amount and severity ratings recorded for each plant and the numbers of plants and species evaluated at each site.

The biosite index is not intended to beused as a measurement of harm. Rather,it provides a relative value, a gradationof response that quantifies the degree ofozone injury conditions on the biomonitoring plots.

Biomonitoring and Forest Health Assessment

1. Are phytotoxic concentrations of ozone present in the forest ecosystem?

2. Is regional air quality (specifically ozone pollution) changing over time? If so, is it increasing or decreasing?

3. In what percentage of a region or forest type are ozone bioindicator plants indicating the possibility of air pollution impacts on forest growth and condition?

What are the field procedures?

Step 1: The field crew selects a suitable site for biomonitoring.

• Biomonitoring plots are wide open areas, at least 1 acre in size, alongside forested areas.

• Biomonitoring plots must contain at least 30 individual plants of at least 2 bioindicator species.

Step 2: The location of the biomonitoring site is mapped, geographic coordinates are recorded, and standard codes are used to describe plot size, elevation, terrain position, aspect, soil drainage, soil depth and disturbance.

western biomonitoring site

Step 3: The field crew identifies 3 or more known ozone sensitive species at the site for injury evaluations.

Plant locations are mapped (approximately) so that the same population of plants is evaluated at every plot visit.

eastern biomonitoring sites

Step 4: Thirty individual plants of each species are rated for the percent of the plant that is injured and the average severity of injury on a 5-point scale.

Code Scale0 No injury1 1-6%2 7-25%3 26-50%4 51-75%5 >75%

Ref.: Horsfall and Barratt. An improved grading system for measuring plant disease.

Step 5. The field crew collects a voucher sample (pressed leaves with ozone injury symptoms) for each injured species and returns it to the regional expert for validation of the ozone injury symptom.

Step 6. The same sites and the same approximate population of plants are evaluated every year.

The goal is to provide a biological index of ozone stress in the forest environment using a consistent protocol on a nation-wide system of biomonitoring plots.

Results from the national grid are used to quantify regional trends in ozone stress in terms of significant changes in the number and distribution of biomonitoring plots with ozone injury and increases and decreases in the injury severity index.

The index will be used to create a spatial response surface such that index values can be predicted for all P2 and P3 plot locations.

What happens to the biomonitoring data?

Reporting

We report on regional and national trends in ozone injury to plants.

We predict where ozone injury will occur.

We identify problem areas where growth effects studies are warranted.

South Carolina: Relationship between ozone exposures and ozone biomonitoring plots. [Draft Image]

Source: Teague Prichard – WI DNR

Examples of summary statistics for the ozone indicator

South Carolina [draft]

FIA analysts should use consecutive 5-year periods with variable ozone levels, weather, wind flow, and precipitation patterns to examine regional trends in ozone air quality over the long-term.

Core Figure: Ozone Biomonitoring Index

Biosite Value Bioindicator response Assumption of risk Relative air quality

0 to 4.9 Little or no foliar injury None Good

5.0 to 14.9 Light to moderate foliar injury Low Moderate

15.0 to 24.9 Moderate to sever foliar injury Moderate Unhealthy for sensitive species

> 25 Severe foliar injury High Unhealthy

Plot-level biosite values are averaged over a 5-year sampling period and then kriging procedures are used to interpolate a surface of biological response (i.e., ozone stress) across the landscape.

The biosite index is classified into 4 response categories that are used to define and describe (1) injury severity (2) possible impact (i.e., risk) (3) ozone relative air quality

Reporting: A national map is generated and States or Regions can excerpt the image they want for reporting purposes.

Linking variables: The interpolated ozone data allows analysts to generate a predicted biosite index value for all P2 and P3 ground plots so that the ozone data can be related directly to tree growth and other FIA indicators of tree condition.

Notes on the Core Figure

Study objective: To identify forest tree species likely to exhibit regional scale ozone impacts. The spatial distribution of probable ozone injury was related to the spatial distribution of forest tree species in the study area.

Results indicated 4 tree species at risk: black cherry, loblolly pine, sweetgum and serviceberry.

Regional assessment of ozone sensitive tree species using bioindicator plants. John W. Coulston, Gretchen C. Smith, and William D. Smith.