Post on 02-Jan-2016
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Research DesignResearch Design
What is the research question? (What is the hypothesis?)Who are your population?Time and BudgetDefine types of the research
1.Quantitative Research2.Qualitative Research
Looking for the exist instrument or establishing a new instrument
Data analysisPlan the research procure
Research Design (Continued)Research Design (Continued)
Get the permission Do the surveyCollect dataAnalyze the dataFinal report
Quantitative Research Design Quantitative Research Design
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Survey Research Designs
-- Cross Sectional Research Designs
-- Longitudinal Studies
2. Experimental Research Designs
3. Quasi Experimental Research Designs
4. Causal-Comparative Research Designs
5. Correlational Research Designs
Survey ResearchSurvey Research
Major Characteristics
-- Information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some aspects or characteristics of the population of which the group is a part
-- Information is collected through asking questions; the answers to these questions by the members of the group constitute the data of the study
-- Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the population
Survey Research (Continued 1)Survey Research (Continued 1)
Purpose of Survey Research
-- To describe the characteristics of a population
-- To determine how a population distributes itself on one or more variables
Types of Surveys
1. Cross sectional
-- Information that is drawn from a predetermined population
-- Information is collected at one point in time
-- A census would be typical
Survey Research (Continued 2)Survey Research (Continued 2)
2. Longitudinal
-- Information is collected at different points in time to determine changes over a period of time
-- Trend studies would be typical-changing population surveyed at different times
-- Panel study-survey same population at different times during the course of the study
Survey Research (Continued 3)Survey Research (Continued 3)
Steps in Survey Research
1. Define the problem
-- What is it the researcher wants to find out
-- Establish research questions
-- Establish research hypothesis (es)
2. Identify the target population
-- Sampling will be discussed later
-- Sampling will be based on your research problem and what population can best attest to your problem
Survey Research (Continued 4)Survey Research (Continued 4)
3. Data gathering -- Direct administration: Need access to the entire sample or population
Need time and /or facilities a. Mail survey -- Mailed to participants -- Request to complete surveys -- Request to return surveys -- Consent forms -- Confidentiality -- Return rate
Survey Research (Continued 5)Survey Research (Continued 5)
b. E-Mail / Web surveys
c. Telephone survey
7. Personal interviews
Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Data-Collection Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Data-Collection MethodsMethods
Direct Administration Telephone Mail Interview
Comparative cost Lowest Same Same High
Facilities needed? Yes No No Yes
Require training of questioner? Yes Yes No Yes
Data collection time Shortest Short Longer Longest
Response rate Very high Good Poorest Very high
Group administration possible? Yes No No Yes
Allow for random sampling? Possibly Yes Yes Yes
Require literate sample? Yes No Yes No
Permit follow-up questions? No Yes No Yes
Encourage response to sensitive topics?
Somewhat Somewhat Easy Hardest
Standardization of responses Easy Somewhat Easy Hardest
Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed-Ended vs. Open-Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed-Ended vs. Open-Ended QuestionsEnded Questions
Advantages Enhances consistency of
response across respondents Easier and faster to tabulate More popular with
respondents Allows more freedom of
response Easier to construct Permits follow-up by
interviewer
Disadvantages May limit breadth of
responses Takes more time to construct Requires more questions to
cover the research topic Responses tend to be
inconsistent in length and content across respondents
Both questions and responses subject to misinterpretation
Hard to tabulate and synthesize
Preparing the InstrumentPreparing the Instrument
Questionnaire1. Appearance2. Questions clear --- Is this a question that can be asked exactly the way it written? --- Is this a question that will mean the same thing to
everybody? --- Is this a question that people can answer? --- Is this a question that people will be willing to answer, given the data collection procedures? --- Pilot test
Preparing the Instrument (Continued 1)Preparing the Instrument (Continued 1)
Types of questions
1. Open-ended
Used if you want an individuals true feelings
Gives people an opportunity to individualize responses
2. Close- ended
Respondents can select responses from a number of options
Questions need to be unambiguous
Keep the focus as simple as possible
Keep questions short
Preparing the Instrument (Continued 2)Preparing the Instrument (Continued 2)
2. Close- ended
Use language the respondents will be familiar with
Avoid using terms that might bias responsesAvoid leading questionsAvoid double negatives
3. Pilot Test4. Format and cover letter
There are several different sources that will assist the researcher to format their questionnaire and cover letter
Preparing the Instrument (Continued 3)Preparing the Instrument (Continued 3)
5. Nonresponse
Send reminders
Can create an additional sample until desired number is reached
May have to discard surveys if there are missed questions
6. Obtain demographics that will be pertinent to the study
Causal-Comparative ResearchCausal-Comparative Research
Definition
1. An attempt to determine the cause or consequence of differences that already exist between two or more groups of individuals
2. Sometimes called correlational research
--- Seeks to explore relationships among variables
--- Identifies variables for further research
--- Differs in that it compare groups rather than scores
--- Differs as it usually has group members rather than quantitative variables
Causal-Comparative Research (Continued Causal-Comparative Research (Continued 1)1)
3. Used to study differences between groups (male-female)4. Looks for noted differences between groups and causes or consequences of the difference5. Can be used as a substitute for experimental research the only difference would be that in experimental research the independent variable is manipulated by a treatment6. This is non-experimental research7. Describe current conditions (cancer)8. Identify or explore the past for causes of the a current condition (smoking)
Examples of the basic Causal-Comparative Examples of the basic Causal-Comparative DesignDesign(a) Group Independent Variable Dependent Variable
I C O
Giving a little gift Level of customer satisfaction
II (-C) O
Not giving a little gift Level of customer satisfaction
(b) Group Independent Variable Dependent Variable
I C1 O
Counselors Amount of job satisfaction
II C2 O
Teachers Amount of job satisfaction
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative ResearchResearch1. Problem
* Establish the phenomena and cause or consequences
* Once established become more specific
* Develop hypothesis (es) by comparing the variables with the causes that have been developed through your research problem
* How does one variable effect the other (independent variable’s effect on the dependent variables)
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Research ( Continued 1)Research ( Continued 1)2. Sample
Define the characteristic to be studied with the idea of selecting a group that would be differing in regards to the characteristic but similar with one characteristic (male-female) (9th grade-11th grade)
3. Instrument
Open-end
4. Design
Select two or more groups that differ on at least one variable but may be similar in another
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Research ( Continued 2)Research ( Continued 2)5. One group possesses a characteristic (criteria) the other
group don’
Investigate a categorical variable vs. a quantitative variable (group vs. score)
6. Data analysis
* Compare the differences in means using t-test or analysis of covariance
* Use frequency polygons
* Just report the cause and the effect do not try to prove causes or effects
Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research
Definition
1. The relationships among two or more variables are studied without any influence or treatment
2. It describes an existing relationship between variables
3. Scores within a certain range on one variable are associated with scores within a certain range on the other variable
Correlational Research (Continued 1)Correlational Research (Continued 1)Purposes
1. Explain important human behaviorsTo clarify our understanding of important phenomena by
identifying relations between variables
2. Prediction studies* Based on a high relationship between two variables it
becomes possible to predict a score on either variable if the score on the other variable is known
* Scattergram -- Ordinate-vertical axis -- Abscissa-horizontal axis -- Regression line-line that comes closest to all scores depicted
may reflect a perfect correlation
3. There are many complex correlational techniques
Correlational Research (Continued 2)Correlational Research (Continued 2)
Basic Steps in Correlational Research1. Problem Selection * The relationship two or more variables * The differences between two or more variables2. Sample * Represent the research variables * Should be selected randomly * Need 30 or more participants for meaningful results3. Instruments * Need to measure two or more variables * Need to yield qualitative data
Correlational Research (Continued 3)Correlational Research (Continued 3)
4. Design * Two scores are obtained from each participant
* One score for each variable
5. Data analysis * Correlation coefficient is produced
* A decimal between 0.00 and 1.0
* The closer to 1.0 the coefficient establishes a stronger relationship
* A correlation 3.5 show only a slight relationship between variables
* Correlations between .40 and .60 may have theoretical or practical value
* Correlations of .65 or higher one can make reasonable predictions
* Correlations over .85 have a strong relationship between variables
Experimental ResearchExperimental Research
What is it?* Research that directly attempts to influence a particular variable* Looks at the effect of an independent variable on one or more dependent variables* Independent variable is the experimental or treatment variable* Dependent variable is the criterion or outcome variable* Researchers manipulate the independent variable --- Researcher decide on the treatment
What is going to happen to the subject?
To whom is the treatment going to be applied
To what extent is the treatment going to be applied
Experimental Research (Continued 1)Experimental Research (Continued 1)
* Comparison of groupsExperimental group receives the treatment
Control group receives no treatmentComparison group receives a different treatment
Randomization* Random selection: every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to be a member of the sample* Random assignment: any of the participants has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups
Takes place before the experiment takes place
It’s a process of assigning not just a distribution
Experimental Research (Continued 2)Experimental Research (Continued 2)
The groups should be equivalent (as much as human being can be)
Has the possibility of eliminating extraneous variables that might effect the outcome of the study by controlling for the characteristics that might have an impact
* Overcoming extraneous variables
--- The researcher has more control over the research than in other research designs
a. Researcher determines the treatment
b. Researcher selects the sample
Experimental Research (Continued 3)Experimental Research (Continued 3)
* Overcoming extraneous variables
--- The researcher determines the treatment
--- The researcher selects the sample
--- The researcher assigns individuals to groups
--- The researcher decides which group will get the treatment, controls and different treatment
--- The researcher controls for outside factors that might influence the study
a. The researcher observes or measures the effect of the treatment on the groups when the treatment is completed
Experimental Research (Continued 4)Experimental Research (Continued 4)
--- Ways the researcher can minimize threats due to subject characteristics
a. Randomization-assume individuals within a group will have different characteristics
b. Control variable by removing it from the study
c. Build needed variable into the study (gender, age, culture, etc.)
d. Match characteristics into the different groups
e. Control subjects by giving them each specific treatments
f. Control groups by grouping into certain variables based on pre-test, pilot test
Experimental Research (Continued 5)Experimental Research (Continued 5)* Weak experimental designs --- One shot study: single group is exposed to the treatment
and dependent variable is measured without any controls --- One group pretest-posttest: measured before and after treatment to determine if there is any change in the dependent variable --- Static group comparison: pre-formed groups compared
based on different treatments --- Example of a one-group pretest-posttest design
Pretest: Twenty-item attitude scale completed by employees (Dependent variable)
Treatment: Ten weeks of counselingPost-test: Twenty-item attitude scale completed by employees
(Dependent variable)
Experimental Research (Continued 6)Experimental Research (Continued 6)
--- Example of a one-shot case study design
--- Example of a static-group comparison design
X ○
New textbook Attitude scale to measure interest
(Dependent variable)
X1 ○
New rules Attitude scale to measure interest
X2 ○
Old rules Attitude scale to measure interest
Experimental Research (Continued 7)Experimental Research (Continued 7)
True experimental designs
* Subjects are randomly assigned to treatment groups
* Randomized posttest only control group design
--- One group received experimental treatment the other is the control group, both groups are post tested on a dependent variable
* Randomized pretest-posttest control group design
--- Measured at the pretest and measured again at posttest to determine whether there has been any change in the dependent variable
Experimental Research (Continued 8)Experimental Research (Continued 8)
Randomized Solomon four group design
--- Two groups are pretested and two are not
--- One of the pretested and one of the non-pretested groups are exposed to treatment
--- Two of the groups are the control groups
--- All four are posttested
Example of a Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Example of a Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group DesignDesign
R X1 O
Random assignment of 50
employees to experimental
group
Treatment: sensitivity
training workshops
Posttest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
(Dependent variable)
100 employees randomly selected
R X2 O
Random assignment of 50
employees to control group
No treatment: Do not receive sensitivity
training
Posttest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
(Dependent variable)
Example of a Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Example of a Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group DesignGroup Design
R O X1 O
Random assignment of 50
employees to experimental group
Pretest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
Treatment: sensitivity training
workshops
Posttest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
(Dependent variable)
(Dependent variable)
100 employees randomly selected
R O X2 O
Random assignment of 50
employees to control group
Pretest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
Treatment: Workshops that do
not included sensitivity training
Posttest: Faculty morale
questionnaire
(Dependent variable)
(Dependent variable)
Experimental Research (Continued 9)Experimental Research (Continued 9)
* Random assignment with matching --- Attempt to increase the likelihood that the groups of subjects in an experiment will be equivalent, participants would be matched on certain variables to insure equivalence on these variables --- The variables matched will be determined by the
researchera. Mechanical matching Pairing two persons based on similar scores on
a particular variable If there is no match some subjects could be
eliminated from the study
Experimental Research (Continued 10)Experimental Research (Continued 10)
b. Statistical matching
Based on a correlation a subject is given a predictable score on a dependent variable with the variable the subject is being matched
Matches could occur based on pretest scores
Quasi Experimental designsQuasi Experimental designs
Does not include the use of random assignment but other control techniques
Matching only design
* Subjects are matched in the experimental and control groups based on certain variables
* There are no assurances they are equivalent on other variables
* Correlations used need to be significant (above 0.04)
Counterbalanced designs
* Another way of equating experimental and control groups
* Each group is exposed to a treatment, but different groups will receive treatments at different times
Quasi Experimental designs (Continued 1)Quasi Experimental designs (Continued 1)
Time series designs
* Measurements or observations are at different times before and after treatment, whether pretest or posttest
Factor designs
* Extend the number of relationships
* Study the interaction of the independent variable with more than one moderator variable (treatment or characteristic variable)
* Uses a factor analysis statistic