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Educational Research
Chapter 6Descriptive Research
Gay, Mills, and Airasian
Topics Discussed in this Chapter
Descriptive research Designing and conducting
descriptive research Self-report data collection methods
Questionnaires Interviews
Descriptive Research Purpose
Determines and describes the way things are Compares how sub-groups view issues and
topics Importance
Frequently used in research studies Used to influence opinion Useful for investigating a variety of
educational problems
Obj. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
Differences from Qualitative Research
Descriptive Research Uses observations
and interviews Studies the topic
from the researcher’s perspective
Qualitative Research Uses observations
and interviews Studies the topic
from the participant’s perspective
Obj. 1.4
Method Six steps in conducting descriptive
research Identify problem Review literature Select participants and instruments Collect valid and reliable data Analyze data Report conclusions
Obj. 2.1
Common Errors Lack of participant response
Low response rates are common Difficulties interpreting the findings
without the data representing non-respondents’ views
Unclear/ambiguous items Researcher needs to develop
recording forms that collect the data objectively and reliably
Obj. 2.2 & 2.3
Classifications of Descriptive Research
• Classified by how data are collected • Self-report
• Individuals respond to statements or questions about themselves
• Observation• Data is collected by the researcher
watching participantsObj. 3.1 & 3.2
Survey Data Collection Methods
Surveys represent the most common type of self-report measures Questionnaires Interviews
Advantages of conducting surveys Less time is required Less expenses are incurred Larger samples can be used Obj. 4.1
Survey Data Collection Methods
Five (5) types of surveys School surveys
Information collected by a school Information collected about a school
Sample surveys Use of samples representing relevant
subgroups of interest
Obj 3.3
Survey Data Collection Methods
Developmental surveys Examining variables that differentiate
children at different developmental stages
Cross-sectional surveys Collecting data from several samples at
one point in time Surveying samples of elementary,
middle, and secondary teachers at the same time Obj. 3.3 & 3.4
Survey Data Collection Methods
Longitudinal surveys Collecting data at two or more times to
measure change Four types
Trend – samples from succeeding groups are studied over time
Cohort – separate samples from a single group are studied over time
Panel – a single sample from a group is studied over time
Follow-up – a sample is studied after the formal study is complete
Obj. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, & 3.8
Conducting Survey Research State the problem
The topic must be of sufficient significance to motivate a respondent and justify the research effort
Select the participants Must be able to provide the desired
information Must be willing to participate
Obj. 4.2
Conducting Survey Research Constructing the questionnaire
Appearance Visually attractive – use of white space Brief
Carefully planned content and item formats
Clearly identify sub-topics Use structured items if possible Use responses that can be checked or
circled rather than writtenObj. 4.5
Conducting Survey Research
Methods to collect data Mailed surveys
Advantages – efficient, inexpensive, easily standardized, easy to score, anonymous or confidential
Disadvantages – low response rate, inability to probe
E-mailed surveys Advantages – quick, efficient, inexpensive, easily
standardized, easy to score Disadvantages – can only assure confidentiality,
respondents might not have access to e-mail
Obj. 4.4
Conducting Survey Research
Telephone surveys Advantages – high response rates, efficient Disadvantages – requires lists of telephone
numbers, requires training Personal administration
Advantages – efficient if respondents are in close proximity to the administrator, allows for probes
Disadvantages – time consuming, expensive, requires training
Personal interview Advantages – rich complete responses Disadvantages – little standardization, takes time to
administer, expensive
Obj. 4.4
Conducting Survey Research
Types of items Two approaches to writing an item
Structured items – closed-ended, selection Unstructured – open-ended, supply
Two disadvantages are that respondents will not take the time to respond and the responses are difficult to score objectively
Specific types Scales
Likert Semantic differential
Rankings Checklists Free responses
Obj. 4.6 & 4.7
Conducting Survey Research
Qualities of good items Address single concept Avoid jargon Include point of reference Avoid leading questions Avoid sensitive questions Do not assume facts not necessarily true Pretested Provide information on how to respond
Questionnaire design Do not crowd items Number pages and items Do not put important questions at the end
Obj. 4.8
Conducting Survey Research Constructing a cover letter
Explains what is being asked and why Content
A brief description of the study Contact information Organizational endorsements and
support Deadline for responding Stamped self-addressed return envelope
Obj. 4.7
Conducting Survey Research
Cover Letter Characteristics Is brief, neat, and personalized Gives reason to respond Gives means to respond Promises anonymity or confidentiality
Anonymity and confidentiality Anonymity means no one can trace the respondent to
his or her responses Confidentiality means the researcher knows who
responded but promises not to divulge that information
Used to track respondents and non-respondents Usually ensured by coding names when the data is
entered
Obj. 4.9 & 4.10
Conducting Survey Research Pretest the questionnaire
Reviews by three (3) or four (4) individuals Provides information about deficiencies and
suggestions for improvement Follow-up activities
Reminder postcard Second survey with a cover letter politely
requesting a response Telephoning a small sample of non-
respondentsObj. 4.11 & 4.13
Conducting Survey Research
Two types of non-responses Respondents not returning the survey
First mailings usually result in 30% - 50% response rate
Follow-up postcards usually add about 20% Sending a second survey with a polite cover
letter requesting participation usually adds about 10%
Obj. 4.13
Conducting Survey Research
Respondents not returning the survey (cont.)
Concerns with generalizing from the results of the respondents given the lack of information from the non-respondents
Use of telephone interviews to collect responses from a few non-respondents
Comparing these responses to those of the respondents
Comparing respondents and non-respondents on demographic variables to ascertain any systematic differences
Obj. 4.12
Conducting Survey Research
Two types of non-responses (cont.) Respondents not completing items
Be certain this is taken into account when summarizing scores
Simply adding scores will not reflect the true score of a participant if he or she has left some items blank
Averaging those items to which a participant has responded takes into account his or her blank responses
Obj. 4.12
Conducting Survey Research
Tabulating responses Closed-ended items
Scantrons Electronic spreadsheets (e.g., Excel) Statistical software (e.g., SPSS-Windows)
Open-ended items Code answers according to perceived
patternsObj. 4.14
Conducting Survey Research
Analyzing results Total sample size and return rate Responses to each item
Average score and percentage of the sample responding
Subscale scores Average score of items on the subscale
Total score Average score of all items
Obj. 4.14
Conducting Interviews
An interview is the oral, in-person administration of a questionnaire to each member of a sample.
Obj. 5.1
Interview Studies
Advantages More in-depth Flexible Gives opportunity
to establish rapport
Allows immediate follow-up
Disadvantages May be biased by
interviewer Time-consuming
and expensive Requires skill
Obj. 5.2
Conducting Interview Research
Define the problem Identify potential interviewees Construct an interview guide
A written protocol that indicates what questions are to be asked, in what order, and how much prompting and probing is permitted
Obj. 5.4 & 5.5
Conducting Interview Research
Interview Guide (continued) Assures that all interviews will be
conducted in the same manner Generally uses semi-structured and
unstructured items Pretest the interview
Identifies deficiencies and suggests improvements
Obj. 5.5 & 5.6
Conducting Interview Research
Administer the interview Conducting an interview effectively
requires training, effective communication skills, and good interpersonal skills
Guidelines Be as brief as possible Explain terms that the interviewee might not
understand Do not use leading questions Do more listening and less talking Obj. 5.3
Conducting Interview Research
Record the responses Manually recording
Cumbersome and slow Likely to miss important information
Mechanical recording Cassette tapes and videos Captures most, if not all, of the information Permits reviewing of the information Causes potential discomfort on the
interviewee’s part Can malfunction
Obj. 5.7