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Psychology
• Scientific study of overt actions
and internal mental and emotional
processes
Neuroscience
• Scientific study of the nervous
system
Biopsychology
• A division of neuroscience that is
the scientific study of the biology
of behavior
“Biopsychologists are
neuroscientists who bring to
their research a knowledge of
behavior and of the methods
of behavioral research. It is
their behavioral orientation
and expertise that make their
contribution to neuroscience
unique.” -Pinel
1. Critical Thinking
• The identification and
evaluation of evidence to guide
decision making and what to do
and believe
Examples
• Judge the credibility of a source
• Critique the methodology of a
research study
• Critique the claims made by a
research study
• Compare and contrast different
research studies
• Decide the usefulness of a
concept to one’s life
2. Attribution
• The process of explaining
yours and others’ behavior
• Explaining the reasons why
you or someone acts the way
they act
Ultimatum Game
DM1
• You have $10
• You have to offer DM2 some amount of money ($0-10)
DM2
• You will receive the amount of money that is offered
• If you deem the offer to be unfair, you can reject it and neither you or DM1 will get any $
Ultimatum Game
DM2
• Think for a moment and
decide on a rejection threshold
– that is, write down a
minimum amount that you
would accept without rejecting
DM1’s offer
• Do not show it to anyone else
Is there a biological basis for generosity ?
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Introduction
• In 2005 over $260 billion was
given to U.S. Charities
• In 2005 65 million helped
volunteer charities
Introduction
Generosity: offering more to
another than he or she expects
or needs.
Altruism: helping another at a
cost to oneself
• Someone may give a homeless
person 25 cents (altruism) or
ten dollars (altruism and
generosity)
Introduction
Empathy: The ability to
understand and be aware of
the feelings, thoughts, and
experiences of another person
• Giving charitably activates
brain regions associated with
reward centers and empathy
(Moll et al., 2006)
Introduction
Oxytocin (OT): A
neurotransmitter and hormone
synthesized in the
hypothalamus
• Facilitates attachment
formation to offspring (humans
and nonhumans), sexual
partners, and strangers
* Increases trust and
reciprocity
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Specific Research Question
Will elevated levels of OT increase generosity?
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Method
• 68 male college students
(average age = 21.8 yrs)
• ½ DM1’s infused with
Oxtocin intranasally
• ½ DM1’s infused with saline
(placebo)
• Randomly assigned to dyads
Method
•Did not interact with partner,
decisions were made at
computers
• All participants first
completed the UG then the DG
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Ultimatum Game (UG)
• All participants wrote down a
rejection threshold before
beginning
• DM1: $10
• DM2: Rejected or accepted
the offer
• Requires “perspective taking”
by DM1
• Measure of generosity
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Method
Dictator Game (DG)
• DM1: $10
• DM2: Must accept whatever
is offered
• ALL participants played the
role of DM1
• Does not require “perspective
taking”
• Measure of altruism
Method
Dependent Variables
(Measurements)
1. Amount of money offered in
the Ultimatum Game
2. Amount of money offered in
the Dictator Game
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Infusion of OT intranasally
increased monetary offers by
21% in the Ulitmatum Game
• Infusion of OT intranasally
did not significantly the
monetary offers in the Dictator
Game
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
Discussion
• Stingy offers activate a brain
region associated with disgust
• OT selectively affected the
understanding of how another
would experience a negative
emotion, and seemed to have
motivated a desire to reduce
DM2’s experienced negativity
Empathy-Generosity
Hypothesis
OT → Increased empathy →
Increased generosity
Alternate Explanations?
• Decreased cognitive capacity?
• OT increases risk aversion?
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi (2007)
What is the connection between the
mind and the brain?
Dualism
• The belief that the brain and
mind are different kinds of
substance that exist
independently
Materialism
• Everything that exists is
material or physical – mental
events don’t exist
Mentalism
• Only the mind exists, the
physical world is a
manifestation of the mind
Identity Position
The view that mental processes
and brain processes are the
same thing, described in
different terms
“Stimulation of any brain area provokes an experience,
and any experiences evokes brain activity. As far as we
can tell, you cannot have mental activity without brain
activity.” –Kalat, p. 6
Mind-Brain Connection
• The mind is brain activity
1. Physiological Psychology
• Study of the neural
mechanisms of behavior by
directly manipulating the
nervous system of nonhuman
animals (e.g., lesions, invasive
recording)
Video
• Lecture 1_Physiological
Psyc_Rat Amygdala 1
(Time 0:00, 1:05, 2:35)
• Lecture 1_Physiological
Psyc_Rat Amygdala 2
Neuroscientists have found that other animals are capable of
making similar instinctive safety decisions. In a study published
online the week of Nov. 29 in the Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, Univ. of Washington researcher Jeansok
Kim demonstrates that rats weigh their odds of safely retrieving
food pellets placed at varying distances from a perceived predator.
"When animals go out to forage, they're taking a risk," says Kim, a
UW psychology professor. "They're leaving the safety of their
nests, venturing out where there may be predators that could eat
them."
2. Psychopharmacology
• Study of the effects of drugs
on the brain and behavior
3. Neuropsychology
• Study of the psychological
effects of brain damage in
humans
• The Case of Jimmie G., the
Man Frozen in Time
4. Psychophysiology
• Studies the relation between
physiological activity and
psychological processes in
human subjects
• Non-invasive techniques
(EEGs, muscle tension, HR,
etc.)
How many of you have ever experienced stress or
anxiety when taking a test?
Did you notice how your body was reacting
physiologically?
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Introduction
Test Anxiety:
* Cognitive Component: Feelings of inadequacy, helplessness,
worry, anticipation of loss of status or esteem, self-critical
attentional focus (self-preoccupation)
* Physiological Component: State of physiological arousal
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Previous Research
• Has not established a specific relationship between physiological
arousal and cognitive functions of test anxiety
• The assumption: test-anxious individuals experience higher
levels of physiological arousal.
Is this really true?
• However, previous studies only assess arousal responses of test-
takers from self-report measures
*Confound: increased attention to arousal cues
Research Questions
1. What are the physiological indices of the cognitive aspects of
test anxiety?
2. How do physiological responses to anxiety affect test performance?
3. Do test-anxious and non-anxious individuals differ in their
physiological responses to high-stakes testing?
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Method
Participants
• 72 F, enrolled in intro psyc
• Test Anxiety Scale
administered at beginning of
quarter
• High test-anxious (n = 36)
• Low test-anxious (n = 36)
Procedure
• Participants sat at a table,
electrodes were attached,
subjects sat for 12 min. to
acclimate to environment
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Experimental Conditions
1. Evaluative (measure of intelligence, “should be easy”
2. Nonevaluative (experimenters unconcerned w/performance –
they will be difficult)
Dependent Variable
Time to solve 8 difficult anagrams
broni _________
ueylbaj _________
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Physiological Measurements
• Skin conductance
• Spontaneous skin responses
• Heart Rate
• Heart Rate Variability (HRV)
– the naturally occurring beat-
to-beat changes
Cognitive Measurements
• State anxiety
• Worry
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Results
• High test-anxious individuals had higher levels of state
anxiety
• High test-anxious women performed worse than low test-
anxious individuals in these conditions:
*Evaluative
*Nonevaulative
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Research Questions
1. What are the physiological
indices of test anxiety?
Results
• Only HRV was correlated
with test anxiety
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Research Questions
1. What are the physiological
indices of test anxiety?
2. How do physiological responses
to anxiety affect test performance?
Results
• Only HRV was correlated
with test anxiety
• HRV was significantly
correlated to test performance
for high-anxious women
• Increased levels of HRV were
associated with lower levels of
anxiety and faster anagram
solution times
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Research Questions
3. Do test-anxious and non-
anxious individuals differ in their
physiological responses to
evaluative (high-stakes) testing?
Results
• The only measure that
successfully differentiated high
and low test-anxious women
was HRV
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Discussion
• HRV may be an physiological index of test anxiety (and predicts
the deficits in cognitive activity associated with test anxiety)
What Does That Mean?
• People who have low test anxiety may still experience high
degrees of physiological arousal. Thus, deficits in cognitive and
attentional processes do not arise merely from maladaptive levels
of autonomic arousal.
• Test anxiety can be conceptualized as a cognitive and
attentional phenomenon, not merely a state of elevated
physiological arousal
Holroyd, Westbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978)
Bradley and colleagues (2010)
The Heart
• Large role in emotion generation (our bodies generate
emotions…not just the other way around)
The heart operates as a primary and consistent generator of rhythmic
information patterns that affect the function of the brain and body as a
whole.” (Bradley et al., 2010)
• Signals traveling from the heart to the brain affect autonomic
signals in the brain stem then cascade up to limbic system and
cortex
What is Heart Rate Variability?
• Encodes info about heart-brain interactions
• Higher levels of HRV correlated with higher performance on
cognitive tasks (Thayer et al., 2009)
Bradley and colleagues (2010)
HRV
• Pattern of wave also important
• Frustration – erratic HRV
• Positive emotions – ordered HRV rhythm
Bradley and colleagues (2010)
Implications
• If you can change the HRV, you can improve cognition activity
and emotional states and improve and performance on exams
Bradley and colleagues (2010)
5. Cognitive Neuroscience
• Focuses on the neural basis
of cognitive processes
(learning, memory, attention,
perception)
What is the neurochemical activity that
underwrites stress during exams?
How can this affect performance?
Vedhara and colleaugues (2000)
Research Question
• Does cortisol affect memory
recall?
Cortisol
• Hormone secreted by the
adrenal glands
• The “stress hormone”
*Fight or flight
*Stress-related changes
Cortisol
• Small amounts beneficial
*A quick burst of energy for
survival reasons
*Heightened memory
functions
*A burst of increased
immunity
*Lower sensitivity to pain
Vedhara and colleaugues (2000)
High Levels of Cortisol & Cognitive Functions
• Acute increases – deficits in attention and memory
• Cortisol induced participants suffered memory impairment
(Newcomer et al., 999)
• High-cortisol level subjects had impairment on divided
attention (Bohnen et al., 1998)
Vedhara and colleaugues (2000)
Method
• 60 undergraduate students
• Cortisol levels measured prior
to and during real-life exam
• 3 cognitive tasks
*Memory recall
*Selective attention
*Divided attention
Results
• Cortisol levels decreased
during exam period
• Increased memory recall
Vedhara and colleaugues (2000)
6. Comparative Psychology
• Studies the behavior of different
species to understand the evolution,
genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior
• Look to other species to understand
human behavior
Divisions of Biopsyc coming together
Converging Operations
• Integrating multiple divisions of biopsyc to understand the
biology-behavior connection
Jimmie G.
Korsakoff ’s Syndrome – severe memory loss
• Commonly occurs in alcoholics
• Alcohol believed to be the cause
• Experiments (on rats) revealed alcohol not responsible, rather
Thiamine (vitamin b) deficiency
*Similar patterns of brain damage
How can this help us?
Divisions of Biopsyc coming together
Human and Nonhuman Subjects
Do you think the following research scenarios are ethical or
unethical in nonhuman subjects?
• Inducing addiction to methamphedamine or cocaine to study the
neurological effects of the drugs?
• Cause damage to or remove structures in the brain
• Sever nerves to study the mechanisms of sensation
• Test the effects of new drugs that may cause damage to an
animal’s body
Class Discussion
Do you support or oppose research on nonhuman subjects?
If you support it, what would be your criteria for ethical
research?
Human and Nonhuman Subjects
Human and Nonhuman Subjects
“Researchers cannot escape the logic
that if the animals we observe are
reasonable models of our own most
intricate actions, then they must be
respected as we would respect our own
sensibilities.” –Ulrich, 1991, p. 197
Research Ethics
• All research is regulated by
independent committees that
enforce strict ethical guidelines
http://www.apa.org/science/lead
ership/care/guidelines.aspx
1. Justification of the Research
2. Personnel
3. Care and housing of animals
4. Acquisition of animals
5. Experimental procedures
6. Field research
7. Educational use of animals
1. Underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across species
and sometimes easier to study in nonhuman species
2. We are interested in animals for their own sake
3. What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution
4. Certain experiments cannot use humans because of legal or
ethical restrictions
Human and Nonhuman Subjects
Advantages of Humans
1. Follow instructions
2. Report subjective experiences
3. Less expensive (seriously)
4. Have a human brain
“The brains of humans differ
from the brains of other
mammals primarily in their
overall size and the extent of
their cortical development. In
other words, the differences
between the brains of humans
and those of related species are
more quantitative than
qualitative, and thus many of the
principles of human brain
function can be derived from the
study of nonhumans.” -Pinel
Human and Nonhuman Subjects
Advantages of Nonhumans
1. Brain–behavior connection is simpler
2. Insights gained from a comparative approach
3. Possible to conduct research that cannot be done on humans
Nonhuman Subjects
• Rats most commonly used. Mice, cats, dogs, and nonhuman primates also used