Chapter 15

Science and Technology

Chapter Outline• The Global Context: The Technological

Revolution• Sociological Theories of Science and

Technology• Technology and the Transformation of

Society

Chapter Outline• Societal Consequences of Science and

Technology• Strategies for Action: Controlling Science

and Technology• Understanding Science and Technology

Science and Technology• Science

• The process of discovering, explaining, and predicting natural or social phenomena.

• Technology• The application of science and

mechanics to the solution of problems. 

Mechanization• Dominant in an agricultural society, the

use of tools to accomplish tasks previously done by hand.

Automation• Dominant in an industrial society, the

replacement of human labor with machinery and equipment that is self-operating.

Cybernation• Dominant in a postindustrial society; the

use of machines to control other machines.

World is Getting Smaller

• The world was made a smaller place in the late 1800s by the Pony Express. Today, the iPhone, combining a number of technological feats, makes the world even smaller.

Global Internet Use from Home:

May 2007

Average number of sessions per month 35

Average of unique domains visited 71

Average pages viewed per month 1,509

Average pages viewed per session 42

Average time online per month 25 hrs, 48 min.

Average time of surfing session 54 minutes

Average duration of a page viewed 45 seconds

Average online population 338,250,261

Postmodernism and the Technological Fix

• Postmodernism is the view that rational thinking and science are limited in their ability to provide “truths.”

• Many people think social problems can be resolved through a technological fix:• A social engineer might approach a water

shortage by asking people to use less water.• A technologist would develop new

technologies to increase the water supply.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective• Science fulfills the need for an assumed

objective measure of truth.• If society changes too rapidly, problems

may emerge.• Cultural lag is a condition in which the

material part of culture changes faster than the nonmaterial part.

Conflict Perspective• Technological advances are motivated by

profit.• Funding of research is determined by

dominant groups.

Private Industry and Research

• Motivated by profit, private industry spends more money on research and development that the federal government does.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective• Knowledge is relative, it changes over

time and between societies.• Scientific “truths” are socially constructed

and result from interactions between scientists, researchers, and the public.

• Who becomes involved in what aspects of science and technology is socially defined.

Teleworking• A form of work that allows employees to

work part- or full-time at home or at a satellite office.

Automation• Automation means

that machines can perform the labor originally provided by humans, such as robots that perform tasks on automobile assembly lines.

Households with Computers and Internet Access by Age: 2003

Age ComputerInternet Access

Under 25 years old 56.5 46.9

25 to 34 years old 68.6 60.2

35 to 44 years old 73.2 65.2

45 to 54 years old 71.9 65.1

55 years or older 46.6 40.8

Households with Computers and Internet Access by Sex: 2003

Sex ComputerInternet Access

Male 65.6 58.6

Female 57.4 50.1

Households with Computers and Internet Access by Education: 2003

Education ComputerInternet Access

Elementary 20.6 14

Some high school 32.7 24.3

High School Graduate/G.D.D.

51.1 43

Some college 70.6 62.4

BA degree or higher 83.3 78.3

Households with Computers and Internet Access by Income: 2003

Household Income Computer Internet Access

Under $5,000 35.6 26.8

$5,000 to $9,000 26.9 20

$10,000 to $14,000 31.7 23.7

$15,000 to $19,999 38.2 29.4

$20,000 to $24,999 46.1 36.7

$25,000 to $34,999 55.4 45.6

Households with Computers and Internet Access by Income: 2003

Household Income Computers Internet Access

$35,000 to $49,999 71.1 62.8

$50,000 to $74,999 81.9 76

$75,000 to $99,999 88.1 84.1

$100,000 to $149,000 92.9 90.4

$150,000 or more 94.7 92.4

The Internet• The interent is the international

information infrastructure (a network of networks) available through universities, research institutes, government agencies, and businesses.  

• Web 2.0 is a platform for millions of users to express themselves online in the common areas of cyberspace.

Common Online Activities, U.S., 2006

Genetics• Molecular biology has led to a greater

understanding of the genetic material found in all cells, DNA, and with it the ability for genetic screening.

• Gene therapy involves identifying defective or missing genes to get a healthy duplicate and transplant it to the affected cell.

• Genetic engineering is the ability to manipulate and alter the genes of an organism.

Genetically Engineered Food• The first genetically

engineered crop was introduced for commercial production in 1996.

• Today, there are more than 200 million acres devoted to these crops with the United States being the largest producer in the world.

Therapeutic Cloning• Uses stem cells from human embryos.• Stem cells can produce any type of cell in the

human body.• Stem cells have been used for repairing spinal

cord injuries in mice, allowing them to walk normally.

• Because the use of stem cells can entail the destruction of human embryos, many conservatives, including President Bush, are opposed to the practice.

The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important?

AgeCures from Stem Cell

Research Protecting Embryos

Don’t Know

18-29 61 32 7

30-49 58 31 11

50-64 55 34 11

64 and older 50 32 18

The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important?

Political Affiliation

Cures from Stem Cell Research

Protecting Embryos

Don’t Know

Republican 45 45 10

Democrat 68 22 10

Independent 58 30 12

The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important?

Self-describedCures from Stem Cell Research

Protecting Embryos

Don’t Know

Conservative 44 45 11

Moderate 61 27 12

Liberal 77 16 7

The Stem Cell Issue, 2004: Which Is More Important?

ReligionCures from Stem Cell Research

Protecting Embryos

Don’t Know

Protestants 52 38 10

White evangelical

33 58 9

White mainline 69 19 12

Black protestant 47 36 17

Catholic 63 28 9

Secular 70 16 14

Stem Cell Research• Christopher Reeve,

stage and movie actor best known for his portrayal of Superman, was a longtime advocate of federally funded research on embryonic stem cells.

• He died on October 10, 2004, at the age of 52.

Deskilling• Labor requires less thought than before

and gives workers fewer decisions to make.

• Upskilling• Reduces alienation as employees find

their work more meaningful, and have greater decision-making powers as information becomes less centralized.

% Saying New Technologies Will Have a Positive Impact, 2005

What Teens Share In an Online Environment, 2006

• 82% include their first names• 79% include photos of themselves • 61% include their city or town 29% include their

last names• 49% include their school’s name• 40% include their IM screen name• 39% include a link to their blog • 29% include their email address• 2% state their cell phone numbers

Outsourcing • India’s outsourcing

industry employs more than 1.2 million workers—a number that is likely to grow as multinational corporations seek qualified personnel outside the United States at a lower cost.

New Forms of Work• The development of

new technology has produced new forms of work and new demands for highly skilled workers in certain segments of the labor market.

Technology-induced Diseases• Diseases that result from the use of

technological devices, products, and/or chemicals

Future Shock• The state of confusion resulting from rapid

scientific and technological changes that unravel our traditional values and beliefs.

Genetic Exception Laws• Laws that require that genetic information

be handled separately from other medical information.

Gene Monopoly• Exclusive control over a particular gene

as a result of government patents

Chapter 16

Conflict, War and Terrorism

Chapter Outline• The Global Context: Conflict in a

Changing World• Sociological Theories of War• Causes of War• Terrorism

Chapter Outline• Social Problems Associated with Conflict,

War, and Terrorism• Strategies for Action: In Search of Global

Peace• Understanding Conflict, War, and

Terrorism

War• War, the most violent form of conflict,

refers to organized armed violence aimed at a social group in pursuit of an objective.

• Whether war is just or unjust, defensive or offensive, it involves the most horrendous atrocities known to humankind.

Global Trends in ViolentConflict, 1946–2004

War and the Development of Civilization• War resulted in small groups and villages

becoming incorporated into larger political chiefdoms.

• Centuries of war between chiefdoms culminated in the development of the state.

State• An apparatus of power, a set of

institutions—the central government, the armed forces, the regulatory and police agencies—whose most important functions involve the use of force, the control of territory and the maintenance of internal order.

War and Industrialization• Industrialization can

decrease a society’s propensity for war, but it also increases the potential destructiveness of war because, with industrialization, warfare, technology becomes more sophisticated and lethal.

Annual Costs of Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, 2001–2008

Operation 2001–2008

Iraq 564

Afghanistan 154.6

Domestic security 27.6

TOTAL 755.7

Cold War• The state of military tension and political

rivalry that existed between the United States and the former Soviet Union from the 1950s through the late 1980s.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective• Gives members a “common cause” and a

common enemy.• In short term, war increases employment

and stimulates economy.• Inspires developments that are useful to

civilians.

Structural Functionalist View of War

• Structural functionalists argue that a major function of war is that it produces unity among societal members.

• Societal members feel a sense of cohesion, and they work together to defeat the enemy.

Dual-use Technologies• Defense funded technological innovations

with commercial and civilian use.

Conflict Perspective on War• War is the result of antagonisms that

emerge when two or more groups struggle for control of resources.

• War benefits corporate, military, and political elites.

Military-Industrial Complex• A term used by Dwight D. Eisenhower to

connote the close association between the military and defense industries.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective• Meanings and definitions influence

attitudes and behaviors regarding conflict and war.

• Attitudes and behaviors that support war develop in childhood.

• Most world governments preach peace through strength, rather than strength through peace.

Patriotism• The face of patriotism

is changing.• A recent survey of

2005 college graduates found that 83% defined themselves as patriotic.

 Causes of War• Conflict over Land and Other Natural

Resources• Conflict over Values and Ideologies• Racial and Ethnic Hostilities• Defense against Hostile Attacks• Revolution• Nationalism

Conflict over Values and Ideologies• World War II was largely a war over

democracy versus fascism.• Cold War largely involved conflict over

capitalism versus communism.• Wars over differing religious beliefs have

led to some of the worst episodes of bloodshed in history.

Constructivist Explanations• Explanations that emphasize the role of

leaders of ethnic groups in stirring up hatred toward others external to one’s group.

Primordial Explanations• Explanations that emphasize the

existence of “ancient hatreds” rooted in deep psychological or cultural differences between ethnic groups, often involving a history of grievance and victimization, real or imagined, by the enemy group.

Security Dilemma• A characteristic of the international state

system that gives rise to unstable relations between states.

• As State A secures its borders and interests, its behavior may decrease the security of other states and cause them to engage in behavior that decrease A’s security.

Free Speech or Commerce?• Arizona businessman

Dan Frazier wears a version of the t-shirt banned in Arizona, Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.

• A judge will decide whether this is a commercial product or a form of free speech protected by the Constitution.

Terrorism• Premeditated use, or threatened use, of

violence to gain a political or social objective.• Transnational terrorism occurs when a terrorist

act in one country involves victims, targets, institutions, governments, or citizens of another country.

• Domestic terrorism is exemplified by the 1995 truck bombing of a nine-story federal office building in Oklahoma City, resulting in 168 deaths and the injury of more than 200 people.

Terrorism• A jeep in flames at the

entrance of Glasgow’s International Airport, site of a “failed” suicide bombing in June 2007.

• A suicide note confirmed that the drivers, one a British-born doctor of Iraqi descent, intended to explode the propane fuel bomb in the terminal.

Terrorism and Victims byRegion, 2006

Patterns of Global Terrorism• In 2005:

• There were approximately 14,000 terrorist attacks around the world.

• About 20,000 people lost their lives as a result of these incidents.

• There was a 25% increase in the number of incidents and a 40% increase in the number of fatalities compared with 2005.

• Over 50% of those killed or wounded were Muslims, and the majority lived in Iraq.

Causes of Terrorism• A failed or weak state, which is unable to

control terrorist operations.• Rapid modernization, when, for example,

a country’s sudden wealth leads to rapid social change.

• Extreme ideologies—religious or secular.• A history of political violence, civil wars,

and revolutions.

Causes of Terrorism• Repression by a foreign occupation (i.e.,

invaders to the inhabitants).• Large-scale racial or ethnic

discrimination.• The presence of a charismatic leader.

The Process of IdeologicalDevelopment

Reports of Prisoner Mistreatment at Guantanamo Bay

Isolated Incidents

Wider Pattern

Neither/ Don’t know

Men 56 64 10

Women 52 34 14

18-29 years old 43 46 11

30-49 years old 55 36 9

50-64 years old 59 28 13

65 years and older 56 25 19

Reports of Prisoner Mistreatment at Guantanamo Bay

Isolated Incidents

Wider Pattern

Neither/ Don’t know

White 57 31 12

Black 35 52 13

Hispanic 44 45 11

Republican 76 14 10

Democrat 43 45 12

Independent 45 44 11

Insurgent Forces• An Iraqi insurgent takes

aim on U.S. positions in Najaf during battle in January 2006.

• Although the U.S. Army has superior weapons and training, insurgent forces rely on deep knowledge of urban terrain and count on support from the local population.

Guerrilla Warfare• Warfare in which organized groups

oppose domestic or foreign governments and their military forces; often involves small groups of individuals who use camouflage and underground tunnels to hide until they are ready to execute a surprise attack.

Weapons of Mass Destruction• (WMD) Chemical, biological, and nuclear

weapons that have the capacity to kill large numbers of people indiscriminately.

Social Problems of War:Women and Children• Before and during WWII, the Japanese

military forced 100,000 to 200,000 women and girls into prostitution as military “comfort women”.

• Refugee women and female children are vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation.

Child Soldiers• A child soldier in Liberia

points his gun at a cameraman while carting a teddy bear on his back.

• Although reliable figures are hard to obtain, the UN estimates that there are about 300,000 child soldiers fighting in wars worldwide.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)• Symptoms include recurring nightmares,

flashbacks, poor concentration.• Associated with family violence,

alcoholism, divorce, and suicide.• Estimate 30% of male veterans of the

Vietnam war have experienced PTSD, and about 15% continue to experience it.

Environmental Degradation• Oil smoke from the 650

burning oil wells left in the wake of the Gulf War contains soot, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, the major components of acid rain, along with a variety of toxic and potentially carcinogenic chemicals and heavy metals.

Nuclear Winter• The predicted result of a thermonuclear

war whereby thick clouds of radioactive dust and particles would block out vital sunlight, lower temperature in the Northern Hemisphere, and lead to the death of most living things on earth.

Selected Federal U.S. Outlays for 2007

Iraqi Elections• On January 30, 2005,

millions of Iraqis defied the insurgents and voted in their first free election in half a century.

• Afghanistan’s first ever parliamentary election took place on September 18, 2005.

Humanitarian Aid• A woman in Darfur

scoops up grain spilled from bags dropped from a plane by the UN’s World Food Program.

• The fighting in Darfur makes it very difficult for humanitarian aid agencies to run regular operations to feed, clothe, and shelter civilians.

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Summary Data, 2007

Military personnel and civilian police serving in peacekeeping operations

82,873

Countries contributing military personnel and civilian police

118

International civilian personnel 4,782

Local civilian personnel 10,879

UN volunteers 2,049

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Summary Data, 2007

Fatalities in peacekeeping operationssince 1948

2,365

Budgets for 7/1/04 to 6/30/05 $5.48 billion

Total cost of operations from1948 to 6/04

$41.74 billion

Mediation• A neutral third party facilitates negotiation

between representatives or leaders of conflicting groups.

Arbitration• A neutral third party listens to evidence

and arguments presented by conflicting groups and arrives at a decision or outcome that the two parties agree to accept.