Post on 12-Jan-2016
transcript
Chapter 4
Leadership, management and supervision
Chapter objectives
Theories of management
Authority&
responsibility
Leadership theories
Leadership styles
Leaders?
Nature and importance of leadership
Leadership is an interpersonal influence directed toward the achievement of a goal.
Conscious activity, concerned with setting goals and inspiring people to provide commitment to achieve the organisation’s goals
Management
‘Effective use and co-ordination of resources such as capital, plant, materials and labour to achieve defined objectives with maximum efficiency’
Overall aim: getting things done
Delegating to other people rather than doing everything themselves
Management can be considered as a:
Function – responsibility for directing & running an org
Process – activities by which internal & external resources are combined to achieve the objective of the org
Discipline – body of knowledge (science & art) Profession – ‘a type of higher grade non-manual
occupation with both subjectively & objectively recognized status, possessing a well-defined area of study or concern & providing a definite service after advanced training & dev.’
Supervision
A supervisor is a type of manager whose main role is to ensure that specified tasks are performed correctly and efficiently by a defined group of people, none of them managers.
Duties & responsibilities
Allocating the tasks to, & organizing the work of those people for whom he/she is responsible
Supervising the work of subordinates & being responsible for achieving targets in the most efficient way
Introducing newly appointed employees to their section
Maintaining discipline Handling personal problems & settling grievances Dealing with unsatisfactory performance Informing mgt Conveying to, & interpreting for, mgt the feelings &
views of employees.
Functions of a supervisor
Planning Organising Controlling Communication Problem-solving and decision-making Motivating and maintaining discipline
Manager vs. leader
A leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily a leader.
Manager Leader
Administers Innovates
Relies on control Inspires trust
Eye on bottom line Eye on the horizon
Theories of management
Classical writers on mgt: mainly concerned with efficiency FAYOL: Universality of mgt principles: proposed
universal rules TAYLOR: Principles of scientific mgt: efficient
methods
Human relations school: MAYO: Reaction to scientific mgt: Human behaviour
Modern writers: Drucker, Mintzberg
Classical school
‘One best way’ To organise the firm To do the individual job
Emphasis on the task rather than the person doing it Main features
Belief in one controlling central authority Specialisation of tasks Fair pay and good working conditions, decided by mgt Clear lines of command
Taylor
Underlying principles of scientific mgt are:
The development of a true science of work. Standard method for performing each job Carefully select workers with right abilities for the
job Carefully train the workers to the job Provide proper incentives Support workers by planning their work and by
smoothing the way as they go about their jobs
Implications of Taylor’s scientific management
Workers should be set high targets, but should be well rewarded for achieving them.
Working methods should be analysed ‘scientifically’, including the timing of work.
Management should plan and control all the workers’ efforts, leaving little discretion for individual control over working methods.
Fayol: The functions of management
To plan – examining the future and drawing up a plan of action – the elements of strategy
To organise – build up the structure, both material and human, of the undertaking
To command – maintaining activity among the personnel
To co-ordinate – binding together, unifying and harmonising all activity and effort
To control – seeing that everything occurs in conformity with established rule and expressed command.
Fayol – 14 rules of managerial conduct
Division of work Authority Discipline Unity of command Unity of direction Subordination to the
general interest Remuneration
Centralisation Scalar chain Order Equity Tenure of personnel Initiative Esprit de corps
Human Relations School – Elton Mayo
Hawthorne Experiments: effects of the changes in physical working conditions
The human relations movement emphasized: Social factors at work Groups Leadership Informal organisation Behaviour of people
Human Relations School – Elton Mayo
School explicitly recognised the role of interpersonal relations in determining work behaviour, and it demonstrated that factors other than pay can motivate workers.
Modern writers
Behaviouralism Concerned with personal adjustment of the individual within the work organisation & the effects of group relationships & leadership styles.
Contingency approach (‘no one best approach’) Takes into consideration other schools of thought, however emphasises the need to adapt to suit particular circumstances.
Modern writers cont.
Systems approach
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
ENVIRONMENT BOUNDARYENVIRONMENT
Modern writer – Peter Drucker
Establish yardsticks
The Manageracc. to Drucker
Motivate & communicate
Develop people Organise
Set objectives
Mintzberg
Like Fayol, Mintzberg observed what managers actually did at work. What he found however was different from the 5
functions that Fayol had suggested. He built up a model of typical managerial
behaviour, which looked at different roles. These roles came from different tasks involved His model identifies the skills the manager needs
in order to develop greater effectiveness.
Interpersonal roles
Information roles
Decision-makingroles
1. Figurehead
2. Leader
3. Liaison
4. Monitor
5. Disseminator
6. Spokesperson
7. Entrepreneur
8. Disturbance handler
9. Resource allocator
10. Negotiator
INTERPERSONAL ROLES-LEADING
ACTIVITIES
1. Figurehead Symbolic role, manager is obliged to carry out social, inspirational, legal & ceremonial duties
2. Leader Manager’s relationship with subordinates, esp. in allocating tasks, hiring, training & motivating staff
3. Liaison Development of a network of contacts outside the chain of command
INFORMATIONAL ROLES-
ADMINISTRATING
ACTIVITIES
4. Monitor Manager collects & sorts out information which is used to build up a general understanding of the organization & its environment as a basis for decision making.
5. Disseminator To spread the information widely
6. Spokesperson Managers transmit information to various external groups by acting in a PR capacity, lobbying for the org., informing the public about the org’s performance, plans & policies
DECISION ROLES-FIXING
ACTIVITIES
7. Entrepreneur Managers should be looking continually for problems & opportunities when situations requiring improvement are discovered.
8. Disturbance Handler A manager has to respond to pressures over which the department has no control e.g. strikes
9. Resource Allocator Choosing from among competing demands for money, equipment, personnel & mgt time, e.g. approving exp. on a project.
10. Negotiator Managers take charge when their org. must engage in negotiating with others. In these organizations, the manager participates as figurehead, spokesperson & resource allocator.
Managerial authority and responsibility
AUTHORITY: Is the right of a person to ask someone else to do
something & expect it to be done. It is another word for legitimate power Fayol’s definition of authority is: “the right to give
orders & the power to exact obedience” It is the right that an individual has to require certain
actions of others, i.e, it is the right to use power.
AUTHORITY
It can arise from any of the 3 main sources: FORMAL: where the org. bestows the authority
upon the individual by means of their job title – goes with the job.
TECHNICAL: where the authority arises due to personal skills/special knowledge/training – goes with the skill/knowledge.
PERSONAL/ INFORMAL: not recognised by any org. chart. It exists because the person is accepted, respected, & popular.
AUTHORITY
When analysing the types of authority which a manager/department may have, the following terms are often used: Line Authority Staff Authority Functional Authority
LINE AUTHORITY
Is the authority a manager has over a subordinate. Line of authority & responsibility are Direct &
Vertical. Rigid relationship between superior & subordinate
throughout the organisation.
STAFF AUTHORITY
Authority one manager/department may have in giving specialist advice to another manager/department, over which there is no line authority.
It does not entail the right to make/influence decisions in the advise department.
E.g. HR dept advising the accounts manager on interviewing techniques
FUNCTIONAL AUTHORITY
A hybrid of line and staff authority, whereby a manager setting policies and procedures for the company as a whole has the authority in certain circumstances, to direct, design or control activities/procedures of another department
E.g. finance manager has authority to require timely budgetary control reports from other line/departmental managers
RESPONSIBILITY
Responsibility is the obligation a person has to fulfill a task, which he has been given.
Responsible: ‘liable to be called to account, answerable’
Because responsibility is an obligation owed, it cannot be delegated.
No superior can escape responsibility for the activities of subordinates, for it is the superior who had delegated authority & assigned the duties.
POWER
It is the ability to get things done. It is a useful concept to explain why different
people exert different degrees of influence. As with leadership or management, power is the
relationship between the more and the less powerful.
The exercise of power is a social process.
POWER
The essence of power is that the persons exercising power are enabled to assume that power by their followers.
So, although a person may not have any formal authority, he is able to assume power over others through the willingness of those to act as followers.
A manager may have formal authority but having lost the respect of his staff, is unable to exercise power/influence over them.
Leaders and power
Five Sources of PowerFive Sources of Power
CoerciveCoercive RewardReward LegitimateLegitimate ExpertExpert ReferentReferent
Leadership power refers to the capacity of a leader to influence work actions or decisions
TYPES/BASES OF POWER
LEGITIMATE/POSITION POWER Derived from being in a position of authority
within the organisational structure – according to the position they hold within the organisation
TYPES/BASES OF POWER REWARD POWER
A person has power over another because they can mediate rewards for them such as promotions, recommendations.
PHYSICAL/COERCIVE POWER This enables a person to mediate punishment
for others: for e.g, to dismiss, suspend, reprimand them, or make them carry out unpleasant tasks.
TYPES/BASES OF POWER REFERENT POWER
It is based upon the identification with the person who has the resources or the desire to be like that person.
EXPERT POWER It is based upon one person perceiving that the
other person has expert knowledge of a given subject & is a recognised authority in a given situation.
TYPES/BASES OF POWER
PERSONAL POWER A person may be powerful simply by force of
personality, which can influence, inspire people.
NEGATIVE POWER This is the power to disrupt operations, such
as strike…
Theories of leadership
Trait theories Action-centred approach (Adair) Contingency approach (Fiedler) Transformational leadership (Bennis) Managing change (Kotter) Leadership to mobilise (Heifetz)
Trait theories
Leaders are born not made
Lists of leadership qualities include: Physical traits Personality traits Social traits
Adair's Action-Centred Leadership Model
Setting objectives
Planning tasks
Allocation of responsibilities
Setting performance standards
Coaching
Counselling
Development
Motivation
Communication
Team building
Motivation
Discipline
Achieving Tasks
Building the Team
Developing Individuals
Contingency-based theories
The overall situational leadership approach suggests that the leader must act in a flexible manner to be able to diagnose the leadership style appropriate to the situation, and to be able to apply the appropriate style.
No one right way to lead that fits all situations
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Two leadership styles were proposed: Task-oriented (PDMs) Person-oriented (PCMs)
Whether the person-oriented or task-oriented is expected to be more effective depends on the favourableness of certain factors: The relationship between the leader and the group (e.g
trust, respect, etc.). The degree to which the tasks performed by the group
were structured. The leader’s position/power.
Transformational Leadership (Bennis)
Transactional leaders View relationship with their followers in terms of a
trade: they give followers the rewards they want in return for service, loyalty & compliance.
Transformational leaders View their role as inspiring and motivating others to
work at levels beyond mere compliance. Only transformational leadership is said to be able to change org culture & create a new direction.
Transformational Leadership cont.
Bennis identified 5 avenues of change:1. Dissent & conflict
2. Trust & truth
3. Cliques & cabals
4. External events
5. Culture or paradigm shift
Managing change
Kotter set out the following change approach to deal with resistance to change: Participation & involvement Education & communication Facilitation & support Manipulation & co-optation Negotiation & agreement
Leadership to mobilise (Heifetz)
Heifetz argued that the role of leader is to mobilise people to change
Leaders have 2 choices when resolving a situation:
1. Technical change – the application of current knowledge, skills & tools to resolve a situation
2. Adaptive change – required when the problem cannot be solved with existing skills and knowledge and requires people to make a shift in their values, expectations, attitudes & habits.
Leadership to mobilise cont.
Heifetz suggests 4 principles for adaptive change:1. Recognition that change requires an adaptive
approach2. Adaptive change causes unhappiness in the
people being led3. Keep focused on the real issue of realising the
change4. Ensure the people who need to make the
change take responsibility & face the reality of doing the work for change themselves.
Leadership stylesBlake & Mouton
Researched managerial behaviour
2 basic dimensions of leadership: Concern for production (Task performance) Concern for people
Blake & Mouton’s Managerial Grid
Ashridge Management College
Suggest 4 distinctive management styles: Tells – autocratic dictator Sells – the persuader Consults – partial involvement Joins – the democrat
Strengths and weaknesses of each style
Chapter summary
Introduction•Leader
•Manager•Supervisor
Theories of mgt
Authority and responsibility (French & Raven)
Leadership styles
Classical school (Taylor, Fayol)
Human Relations school (Mayo)
Modern writers (Drucker, Mintzberg)
Blake and Mouton
Ashridge
Theories of leadership:
Trait theories
Situational approach
Contingency approach (Fiedler)
Transformational leadership (Bennis)
Managing changer (Kotter)
Leadership to mobilise (Heifetz)