Chapter 5 Exx: 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and deep structure for 11 – no trees) Problem Set 4

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Goals for syntax chapter Not responsible for Section 4 (Verb raising) or how to do passive sentences You should know how to do the following:

identify the lexical/syntactic category of word construct phrases and simple sentences and sentences with embedded sentences (draw trees for these structures) apply different movement operations to derive surface structure forms from deep structure

Syntax

Syntax The part of the grammar that combines words into sentences The study of the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation.The goal of syntax is to come up with universal principles (Universal Grammar) that describes all languages phrase formation proceduresSyntax is responsible for the hierarchical structure of phrases and their creation

Syntax

Syntactic Categories Lexical categories: Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and Adverb (Adv) Nonlexical Categories: Determiner (Det); Auxiliary Verb (Aux) - Modal and Nonmodal; Conjunction (Con); Degree word (Deg) Table 5.1, p. 153 Harder to define nonlexical words (the or so compared to hill or book) Some words can belong to more than one category - examples? like/fond

Syntax

Lexical:words that have semantic contentwords that can be inflectedan open class to which new members can be addedincludes nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions

SyntaxNonlexical:words that have gramatical functionwords that do not have morphologywords that resist changea closed class to which new members are not addedincludes determiners, auxiliary verbs, degree words, qualifiers, pronouns, conjunctions, complementizers, and particles

Syntax

SyntaxHow to determine syntactic category - MEANINGNoun = person, place or thing (Jeff, classroom, book)Verb = action, sensation, state of being (run, loves, sees, be)Adjective = describes a noun (green, ugly)Adverb = describes a verb (quickly, slowly)Preposition = describes physical location (to, for, from, on, in)

Syntax

SyntaxHow to determine syntactic category – INFLECTION TESTOnly certain inflectional suffixes attach to certain lexical categoriesThere are some words that belong to these syntactic categories that do not take these suffixes (*funner, *intelligenter)

Category Inflectional Affix

Examples

N (Noun) plural -s books, chairs, doctors

possessive -’s John’s, (the) man’s

V (Verb) past tense -ed arrived, melted, hopped

progressive -ing arriving, melting, hopping

3rd person sing. -s arrives, melts, hops

A (Adjective)

comparative -er taller, faster, smarter

superlative -est tallest, fastest, smartest

Syntax

SyntaxHow to determine syntactic category – DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERSDeterminer = specifies a noun (the, a, these, that)Adverbs = specifies a verb (always, often, never)Degree = specifies an adjective or preposition (very, quite, really)So you can tell a N if it can occur after a DetA V can occur with an Aux verbAn Adjective with a degree word

Syntax

SyntaxNoun phrases (NP)presidents - contains only the head nounthe presidents - contains a specifier and head nounpresidents of the USA - contains the head N and a complement prepositional phrasethe presidents of the USA - contains a specifier, head N, complement PP

The complement PP of the USA contains the head P of and a complement NP. The NP the USA contains the specifier and head N

Syntax

SyntaxVerb Phrases (VP)sings - contains only the head verboften sings - contains a specifier and head verbsings a ballad - contains the head V and a complement NPoften sings a ballad - contains a specifier, head V, complement NP

The complement NP a ballad contains the head N ballad and specifier a.

Syntax

SyntaxAdjective Phrases (AP)happy - contains only the head adjective (A)very happy - contains a specifier and head Ahappy with the results - contains the head A and a complement PPvery happy with the results - contains a specifier, head A, complement PP

The complement PP with the results contains the head P and complement NP the results. The NP contains specifier and head N.

Syntax

SyntaxPrepositional Phrases (PP)in - contains only the head preposition (P)almost in - contains a specifier and head Pin the car - contains the head P and a complement NPalmost in the car - contains a specifier, head P, complement NP

The complement NP the car contains the head N and specifier.

Syntax

SyntaxPhrase structure rules

The preceding examples show that any given phrase can be composed of a mandatory head and optional complement and optional specifier. This is written as:

XP (Spec) X (Comp)

The optional components are written in ()s.

From previous examples we have the following:

Can you think of any other possibilities?

AP (Deg) A (PP)

PP (Deg) P (NP)

NP (Det) N (PP)

VP (Adv) V (NP)

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure - units of words, but not sentences = phrases Each phrase consists of the head, a specifier and a complement

The way the book groups phrases is called X' (X bar) where X stands for whatever category you’re dealing with (Noun, Verb, etc)

X (Complement)head

(Specifier)

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure The heads of a phrase are mandatory

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional

dog in the house

s are only used when it is not necessary to show the internal structure of that phrase. Assume that it is NOT OK to use s.

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Rules XP (specifier) X (complement)*

dog in the house

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Rules AP Deg A

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Rules VP Adv V

always

Syntax

Syntax Phrase Structure Rules PP P NP

on Det N'

Syntax

Syntax VP Deg V PP; PP P NP

on Det N'

always

Syntax

Syntax VP Deg V PP; PP P NP

on Det N'

always

Syntax

Simple sentences

The sentence or IP is the highest level in the sentence structure.

These elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.

IP NP (subject ) I’ (inflection)

I’ I VP (predicate)

I + or - Past and/or a Modal

Lines will never intersect

NP to the left

VP to the right

Syntax

Steps in drawing trees. • Step 1 - assign each word to the appropriate category.

Syntax

Steps in drawing trees. • Step 2 – working from right to left (for English), write the

appropriate phrasal structure. Specifiers go directly to XP level.

Syntax

Steps in drawing trees. • Step 3 – There is no complement for the NP that man so move on to the

previous VP. The NP is a complement for the VP so attach the NP to V′

Syntax

Steps in drawing trees. • Step 4 – The VP is not a complement of the NP. Draw the final

Syntax

Steps in drawing trees. • Step 5 – Connect the predicate VP and the subject NP as the

complement and specifier (respectively) of IP

Syntax

Sentences (IP)

Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The students hated the book

The students hated the textbook

NDetVDet N

Syntax

Sentences (IP)Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The students hated the book

NDetVDet N

Syntax

NDetVDet N

Syntax

NDetVDet N

Syntax

DetVDet N

Syntax

The students will hate the textbook

DetVDet N

- PstI

Sentences (IP)Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The students will hate the book

Syntax

Sentences (IP)Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The housewives kept the secrets

The housewives kept the secrets

DetVDet N

Syntax

Sentences (IP)Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The housewives can keep the secrets

The housewives can keep the secrets

DetVDet N

- PstI

Syntax

SubcategorizationFancy term for what complements any XP can or must take

Verbs that can take a complement are transitive (eat, read, look) She read a book

Verbs that do not are intransitive (sleep, lie, laugh) He slept

See Table 5.5, p. 163 for what complements certain verbs can take

Syntax

Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)

Think about this sentence I wonder if she will take the test.

How do we incorporate the second sentence: she will take the test?This second sentence (called a complement clause or CP) is serving as the

complement of the V wonderLike all other syntactic structures, CPs consist of: CP C ' and C ' C IP Words such as that, whether and if are known as complementizers (C).The specifier position is open for Move operations (discussed later)Matrix clauses are the largest clause that contain the CP(s)

[I wonder [if she will take the test.]]

Syntax

Example of a complement clause

Syntax

Example of a complement clause

Syntax

If we want to keep the structures the same for the theory, then it is posited that all IPs are actually CPs with or without a C (like we have I whether or not it actually gets filled with a surface form).

A Bit Theoretically Bizarre

Syntax

Following our rules for sentence structure how do we account for questions?

Is the man intelligent?

Can you come to dinner?

In the first example, there is no NP to the left of the IP and in the second, the modal is before the subject.

To explain this we will use the theory of: Deep Structure.

Questions?

Syntax

Deep Structure

Accounting for sentences such as questions and passives with a new set of rules would be messy.

Transformational grammar accounts for the differences with transformations (move). All sentences in deep structure (before the move) will follow our previous phrasal rules.

How do we know deep structure exists?

Syntax

Arguments for Deep Structure

What will you say?

In this sentence What is functioning as the object of the sentence.

This can be demonstrated by trying to add an object after the verb.

* What will you say goodbye.

In this sentence, the verb requires an object, so omitting it in the non-question form does not work

* You will say

Syntax

Arguments for Deep Structure

Deep structure for this sentence is You will say what?

To arrive at deep structure Merge -> Deep Structure Deep Structure -> Move Surface structure

Surface structure trees must show traces of units original position.

Syntax

D-Structure and S-Structure

Syntax

Movement

2 types of movement:Inversion (yes/no question)

That guy should eat an apple Should that guy t eat an apple?

Wh- Movement + Inversionthe students should read what for class What should the students t read t for class?

Syntax

Movement - Inversion

studentthat should study

I-pst N

Syntax

Movement - Inversion

studentthat t study

I-pst N

should

Syntax

Movement - Inversion and Do insertion

studentthat studied

I+pst N

did study

Syntax

Movement - Inversion and Do insertion

studentthat study

I+pst N

Syntax

Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement

studentthat

I-pst N

should study

syntax

Syntax

studentthat

I-pst N

t study

syntax

should

Syntax

studentthat

I-pst N

t study

NPI-pst

should

Syntax

studentthat

I-pst N

t study

NPI-pst

should

Syntax

Practice Identifying D-Structure & S-Structure

In order to get the deep structure from the surface structure, follow these steps:

YOU SEE: YOU THINK: YOU DO:

A modal auxiliary verb ahead of the subject.

Inversion has taken place.

Put the modal aux back into its deep structure position in I.

A wh word or phrase. Wh Movement had taken place.

Examine each verb in the sentence. Determine if a verb is missing either subject or an object, and put the wh word or phrase into that position.

Examine each preposition in the sentence. Determine if a preposition is missing an object. Put the wh word or phrase into that position.

Syntax

Structural Ambiguity

We have been presenting different phrase structure trees to show the hierarchy and relationship of the different phrases in a sentence. What happens when the difference in the relationship of these phrases also causes a difference in the meaning/interpretation of a sentence?

When there are two or more interpretations of one sentence with the exact same words in the exact same order, we call this structural ambiguity (discussed in your text in Chapter 6, section 3.2).

Syntax

Structural Ambiguity

For example: Sam ate the cake in the kitchen. (See handout for answers)What are the 2 meanings? What is the relationship between the phrases in the sentence (what modifies what?)

Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was in the kitchen.Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake

Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in the kitchen.Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate

Syntax

Syntax PracticeFor each of the following phrases, determine the head of the phrase, any specifiers, and any complements.

the rat

in the barn

very small

awfully cute

swept the floor

the poem about love

rat the

in the barn

small very

cute awfully

swept the floor

poem the about love

Head Specifier Complement

Syntax

Practice 1

Draw phrase structure trees for the following:

1. the rat

2. men

3. in the barn

4. really mean

5. ran

6. ran into the shed

7. rather boring

8. hate those pancakes

9. the denial of the accusation

Syntax Practice

Syntax

Practice 2

Simple sentences

Practice drawing trees for the following sentences

• Dogs should always go for a walk.

• Those monsters were hiding under the bed.

• Abner concealed the document.

• Marge usually watches the sunset.

• The children are playing with a dinosaur.

Syntax Practice

Syntax

Practice 3

3.) The floor knew [that it would not stay clean].

2.) The janitor wondered [if the floor would stay clean].

1.) The teacher hopes [that the students will study hard].

Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)Identify the CP (Complement Phrase) in the following matrix sentences. Put a

bracket around the CP.

Syntax Practice

Syntax

Practice 4

Practice Drawing D-Structure & S-Structure

Can a dog bark?

Will the students be bored?

Will the trip be enjoyable?

Who can see the shore?

Syntax Practice

Syntax

Practice 5

Can a dog bark?

Will the students be bored?

Will the trip be enjoyable?

Who can see the shore?

a dog can bark can a dog t bark

the students will be bored will the students t be bored

the trip will be enjoyable will the trip t be enjoyable

who can see the shore who t can see the shore

Deep structure Surface structureSyntax Practice

Syntax

Practice 6

Chapter 5 Exx: 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and deep structure for 11 – no trees) Problem Set 4

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