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CHAPTER III
PHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING
AGRICULTURE
3.1 Physical Factors
Agriculture depends to a great extent on the physical factors of natural
environment. The agricultural typology is related to natural environment and therefore,
man without developed technology and science has little control over success or failure
of the agricultural enterprise. The physical factors influencing agriculture of the district
Darrang include topography, climate, flood and soil erosion.
3.1.1 Topography
Agricultural development of the district is determined by its topography. The
district consists of seven community development blocks. Each block has peculiarity in
topography. As a result, agricultural pattern of each development block is different
from the other. Physiographically, the configuration of the region is that it is mainly an
alluvial plain with an abrupt southern slope in the North.
The south-western corner of Sipajhar development block is occupied by some
low hills of maximum heights upto 100 metres only above mean sea level. In this south
western part there is a large number of swamps, beels and low lying areas. During
summer, these swamps and beels remain full of water but in winter, water level
decreases. As a result, boro rice is cultivated in this low lying area. The north western
part of Sipajhar development block is mostly an alluvial plain. As irrigation facilities
are not available in this region, agricultural activities depend on rain water and so only
winter rice is cultivated here. The river Nanoi flows through the middle of this block,
thereby enriching its banks with alluvial soil. The low lying areas, particularly the char
areas are also rich in alluvial soil. Different types of crops such as vegetables, rape &
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mustard are grown in large quantity in these char areas. For the nature of topography of
the Pub-Mangaldai and Pachim-Mangaldai development blocks, the crops like winter
rice, boro rice, wheat, maize etc. are cultivated. This has taken the district ahead in
respect of agriculture. Dalgaon-Sialmari development block is in the south-eastern part
of the district. The middle and the eastern parts are high land areas. Orang Wild Life
Sanctuary falls in one of these high level areas. The southern part is a flood prone area.
Farmers cultivate both winter and summer rice and different types of rabi and kharif
crops. The Bechimari development block is located in the north-eastern part of the
district. This development block is generally a new alluvial plain area and agriculturally
a developed area. Mixed farming and double farming are common in this development
block. Kalaigaon development block is located in the northern part of the district. It is
an alluvial plain area. Farmers in the eastern part of this block practise double cropping
in comparison to the western part as the eastern part has sufficient irrigation facilities.
In this eastern part Muslims of immigrant origin are inhabited. They cultivate winter
rice in a large scale and also cultivate different types of vegetables both rabi and kharif.
Especially on account of the topography of the eastern part, Kalaigaon development
block becomes famous in the district for growing different types of crops. The
topography of Khairabari development block is characterized by plain area and black
soil, as a result of which this block is dominant in the production of winter rice, jute,
potato, wheat etc. Mainly the indigenous Hindu people inhabit in this block.
3.1.2 Climate
Like other parts of Assam, the climate of the district is characteristically
monsoonal with changing season. The high temperatures being experienced during the
south-west monsoon season along with abundant rains and highly humid atmosphere
throughout the year. Winter starts from December and ends in February, which is
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followed by a season of thunder storms, from March to May. Next from June and up to
the beginning of October is the season of south-west monsoon and October and
November are marked as post-monsoon season. The agricultural activities of the
farmers are conditioned by the seasonal and spatial variations in the distribution of
climatic elements. Accordingly the cropping pattern varies from development block to
block and season to season. In the cold weather and the retreating monsoon season, rabi
crops are cultivated in Pub-Mangaldai, Pachim-Mangaldai, Dalgaon-Sialmari,
Bechimari and Kalaigaon development blocks. These blocks are the leading producer
of vegetables and supply them to different markets of Assam.
3.1.3 Flood
Like the most parts of Assam, the district of Darrang too is chronically a flood
affected area. Droughts are little known in the district while widespread flood has
become a regular phenomenon here. Every year large areas are inundated by floods
causing heavy loss in terms of life and property and extensive damage to standing
crops. Kharif crops are the victims of summer floods and this unfortunately is an
irreparable loss that is inflicted on the economy of the farmers.
There are a large number of rivers in Darrang district. The important rivers are
the Nanoi, the Noanoi, the Mangaldai River and the Zia-Dhansiri. This region receives
intensively heavy and continuous rainfall within a short period in summer months
which inundates extensive areas of the district. The Brahmaputra and its tributaries also
add the volume of water in this period.
The incidence of flood and erosion is rooted in the typical physiographical
features and meteorological conditions obtaining in this part of the state. The heavy
water and silt discharges occurring in the upper region during the peak and rivulet
resulting in excessive spilling on the banks of the rivers and their tributaries and
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consequent water logging in extensive. It is also believed that the great earthquake 1950
causing extensive hill slides in the catchment of the Brahmaputra is also one of the
reasons of floods in this district.
Indiscriminate deforestation in the catchment and the upper reaches of the
Brahmaputra river basin causes heavy soil erosion. Consequently the huge load of
sediment carried by the Brahmaputra and their tributaries is deposited on their beds and
banks leading to the raising of the beds and spilling of the water to the surrounding low
lands during the flood. The Nanoi, Noanoi and the Zia-Dhansiri rivers pass through this
district causing meanders and depositing river loads. It has been destroying agricultural
lands. The construction of embankment on the river banks as a measure of flood control
without prior survey and investigation of the geographical and hydrological behaviour
of the rivers and the soils also creates flood havoc in certain areas where there are
abrupt breaks in the earthen embankment.
Considering the physiographical features of the district, the floods remain
unavoidable, but if sufficient precautions are taken, the extent of damages can be
minimized.
3.1.4 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is an important inhibitory physical factors faced by the farmers in
the district. Along the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, the problems of fluvial erosion
are very severe because of running water caused by heavy rainfall in the entire Darrang
district. Soil erosion is influenced by the nature of the soil, by the length and steepness
of the slope, by the climate, especially by rainfall and by the crops grown. Heavy rains
causes flood run off that leads to severe erosion. Agricultural practices and the crops
grown have their influence on soil erosion, as the crops grown vary in the degree of
exposure of soil. Cotton, Maize, beans, cabbage, tobacco, potatoes and most of the
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vegetables are soil explosive crops. Along the river Brahmaputra and many of its
tributaries that pass through the district, soil erosion has led to the formation of a vast
and intricate network of fissures and gullies and the loss of invaluable agricultural land.
Every year after the recession of flood, large areas of good agricultural land are eroded
inflicting untold misery to the poor farmers of the district. The destruction of the forests
in the catchment areas of the rivers has caused rapid run-off and erosion leading to the
deposit of an increasing mass of debris on river beds.
This increasing mass of debris on river beds in the low lying areas obstacles in
this rapid run-off and force them to change their way. This change results in heavy
floods and great damage to the people. Moreover, soil erosion reduces the productivity
of land, makes the land unfit for cultivation and the people poor.
3.2 Socio-Economic Factors
In addition to the physical factors, agricultural land use, cropping pattern and
agricultural processes of the district Darrang are also largely influenced by the socio-
economic factors such as fragmentation of operational holdings, labour, land revenue
system, mechanization and equipments, transportation facilities and marketing
facilities.
3.2.1 Size of Land Holdings
Efficiency of agricultural operation depends to a large extent on the possession
and size of landholding of the peasants. The size of landholding and the size of farm
decide the degree of risk that a farm operator may bear.
Determined by the physical condition, history of settlement and social setting
the size and distribution of landholdings in the villages under this study exhibit
different patterns, with the aim of understanding the social setting, landholding
structure of the different villages of the seven community development blocks, a survey
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through a schedule (appendices-annexure - II) is carried out in 31 villages of seven
development blocks of the district. Attempt has been made to collect primary data on
the above mentioned aspects at least from 30 percent households from each village as
far as practicable, selecting from with the help of stratified random sampling on the
basis of landholding size. The households are classified into different categories as
<0.5, 0.5-1, 1-2, 2-5, 5-10 and > 10 hectares.
Table 3.1 shows the number of households under different landholding size
classes of the different community development blocks of the district. From the table it
is seen that, in the 1-2 hectares size classes (marginal), the percentage of the household
(31.04 percent) is the highest in Sipajhar development block. Sub-marginal holdings
(0.5-1 hectares) constitute 30.06 percent and small holdings (2-5 hectares) constitute
13.40 per cent of the total surveyed households in this development block. In the size
class of <0.5 hectares, the percentage of household is 10.53 percent in Kharkhuwapara
village, 22.92 per cent in Duwaripara, 28 per cent in Mahtali, 50 per cent in Hirapara
and 25.64 per cent in Phuhuratali village. In the size class of 0.5-1 hectares, the
percentage of households is 21.05 in Kharkhuwapara, whereas the percentage of
households are 33.33, 36, 20.59 and 33.33 in Duwaripara, Mahtali, Hirapara and
Phuhuratali villages respectively. The percentage of household is 26.31 in
Kharkhuwapara, 33.33 per cent in Duwaripara, 20 per cent in Mahtali, 17.65 per cent in
Hirapara 41.02 per cent in Phuhuratali villages under the size class of 1-2 hectares
(marginal). In the size class of 2-5 hectares (small), the percentage of household is
42.10 in Kharkhuwapara, 10.42 per cent in Duwaripara, 16 percent in Mahtali and
11.76 percent in Hirapara villages of Sipajhar development block. It is observed that
the landholding structure of this development block is dominated by the marginal and
small holdings. Medium and larger farms are totally absent in all the villages of this
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block. The landholdings are fragmented and scattered due to the increasing pressure of
agricultural population on arable land.
In Pub-Mangaldai development block, the percentage of household is 22.64 in
the<0.5 hectares size class, 31.80 per cent in the 0.5-1 hectares size class 28.03 percent
in the 1-2 hectares size class and 17.52 percent in the 2-5 hectares size class. In the size
class of 0.5-1 hectares, the percentages of households are highest in No.2 Mazgaon
village (39.76 percent), in Balabari village (26.92 percent) and Chereng-Chapari (45
percent). In the size class of 2-5 hectares, the households are totally absent in No.2
Mazgaon and Chereng Chapari. In Galaidingi village which is inhabited by the
Scheduled Tribes, the percentage of household is the highest (37.78 per cent) in the size
class of 1-2 hectares. In this village the people cultivate boro rice in a large area.
Dhariakhaiti is inhabited by the Muslims of immigrant origin and this village is located
in char area. So in this Chapari the percentage of households is the highest (29.73
percent) in the size class of <0.5 hectares (landless).
In the <0.5 hectares size class, the percentage of household is 4.76 in Paschim-
Mangaldai Development Block. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentage of
household is 28.25, 32.70 per cent are of the size ranging between 1-2 hectares and
14.28 percent are of the size ranging between 2 and 5 hectares in Pachim- Mangaldai
development block. Tamulipara village is inhabited by indigenous Hindu and in this
village the percentage of households are 14.81 per cent in the size class of <0.5
hectares; 25.92 per cent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares; 29.63 per cent in the size
class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares. Gariapara village is inhabited by indigenous
Muslim and the percentage of households are 34.15 in the size class of <0.5 hectares;
31.70 per cent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares and 34.15 percent in the size class of 1-
2 hectares of the total households. Bezpara is inhabited by scheduled tribes and in this
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village the percentage of household is 21.70 in the size class of <0.5 hectares; 28.68
percent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares; 30.23 per cent in the size class of 1-2
hectares and 19.38 per cent in the size class of 2-5 hectares of the total households.
Barkumarpara village is inhabited by the Scheduled Caste and in this village, the
percentage of households are 29.82 in the size class of <0.5 hectares; 31.58 per cent in
the size class of 0.5-1 hectares and 38.60 hectares in the size class of 1-2 hectares of the
total households. Banglaputa chapari is inhabited by the Muslims of immigrant origin.
Of the total households, 30 percent are of the size ranging between 1-2 hectares, 60 per
cent are of the size ranging between 2-5 hectares and only 5 per cent in the size classes
of <0.5 and 0.5-1 hectares in Banglaputa chapari. Moreover, the medium and large
farms are almost negligible in all the villages of Pachim-Mangaldai development block.
In the 2-5 hectares size classes (small), the percentage of the household (24.52
per cent) is the highest in Dalgaon- Sialmari Community development block. A sub-
Marginal holding is 24.10 per cent, a marginal holding is 21.77 per cent and only 5.71
per cent is medium holdings in this development block. In the <0.5 hectares size class,
the percentage of the households are 20.79 in Dhekerigaon, 13.13 per cent in
Ghiladhari, 21.24 per cent in Rangagara pathar and 73.33 percent in No.1 Kheteswar
villages of this development block. No.1 Kheteswar village is inhabited by Scheduled
Caste people. They have no any agricultural land. The main occupation of this village is
fishing and business. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentages of households are
23.76in Dhekerigaon, 18.18 percent in Ghiladhari, 25.66 percent in Rangagarapathar,
26.67 percent in No.1 Kheteswar and 27.06 percent in Ulubari villages of the total
household. In the size class of 1-2 hectares, the percentages of households are 30.69 in
Dhekerigaon, 16.16 percent in Ghiladhari village, 26.55 percent in Rangagarapathar
and 30.59 percent in Ulubari village of the total households. In the 2-5 hectares size
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class, the percentage of households are 24.75 in Dhekerigaon, 37.37 percent in
Ghiladhari, 26.55 percent in Rangagarapathar and 28.23 percent in Ulubari villages of
the total households. The households are seen only in Ghiladhari and Ulubari villages
in the size class of 5-10 hectares (medium). It is observed that in Ulubari village the
percentage of households are highest in the size class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares
than the other villages of Dalgaon–Sialmari development block. It is due to the
increasing number of agricultural population contributed mainly by the immigrant
peasants.
In the <0.5 hectares size class, the percentage of the households of Bechimari community
development block is 19.35 whereas the percentage of households are 25.64, 28.44 and
26.57 in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares, 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares respectively. In
Baruapara villages, the percentage of household is 15.15 of the total household in the size
class <0.5 hectares. In this size class, the percentage of households are 28.22 in Nadirkash
village; 20 percent in Niz- Dalgaon village; 5 percent in No. 2 Chikanmati and only 2
percent in Dongpara village of the total households. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the
percentage of the households are 22.73 in Barlipara village, 27.61 percent in Nadirkash,
26.78 percent in Niz – Dalgaon, 21.74 Percent in No.2 Chikanmati and 23.08 percent in
Dongpara village of Bechimari community development block. The percentage of
households are 28.79 in Baruapara village, 21.47 percent in Nadirkash , 26.78 percent in
Niz – Dalgaon, 56.52 percent in No. 2 Chikanmati and 38.46 percent in Dongpara village
in the 1-2 hectares size class (Marginal). In 2-5 hectares (small) size class, the percentage
of households are 33.33 in Baruapara village, 22.79 percent in Nadirkash, 28.57 percent in
Niz – Dalgaon and 35.38 percent in Dongpara village of Bechimari community
development block. It is seen that the percentage of households are the highest in the size
class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 in all the villages of this development block.
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Table 3.1: Size of Landholding in Selected Villages of Different Community Development Blocks of Darrang District, 2010-11
(Figures in brackets indicate the percentage of household)
Name of
the Blocks
Name of the
surveyed villages
Total
No. of
House-
hold in
the
villages
Total
No. of
house-
hold
surveyed
No. of households under different size of land holdings
<0.5(hectare)
(Land less)
0.5-1 (hectare)
(Sub-marginal)
1-2 (hectare)
(Marginal)
2-5 (hectare)
(Small)
5-10 (hectare)
(Medium)
>10 (hectare)
(Large)
Sipajhar
1. Kharkhuwpara
2. Duwaripara
3. Mahtali
4. Hirapara
5. Phuhuratali
189
160
169
114
388
57
48
50
34
117
6 (10.53)
11 (22.92)
14 (28)
17 (50)
30 (25.64)
12 (21.05)
16 (33.33)
18 ( 36)
7 (20.59)
39 (33.33)
15 (26.31)
16 (33.33)
10 (20)
6 (17.65)
48 (41.02)
24 (42.10)
5 (10.42)
8 (16)
4 (11.76)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 306 78 (25.49) 92 (30.06) 95(31.04) 41 (13.40)
Pub-
Mangaldai
1. No. 2 Mazgaon
2. Balabari
3. Galaidingi
4. Cherang-
Chapari
5. Dhariakhaiti
275
346
300
67
247
83
104
90
20
74
27 (32.53)
28 (26.92)
-
7 (35)
22 (29.73)
33 (39.76)
28 (26.92)
27 ( 30)
9 (45)
21 (28.38)
23 (27.71)
26 (25)
34 (34.78)
4 (20)
17 (22.97)
-
22 (21.15)
29 (32.22)
-
14 (18.92)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 371 84 (22.64) 118 (31.80) 104 (28.03) 65 (17.52)
Pachim-
Mangaldai
1. Tamulipara
2. Gariapara
3. Bezpara
4. Barkumarpara
5. Banglaputta
Chapari
90
273
430
191
66
27
82
129
57
20
4 (14.81)
28 (34.15)
28 (21.70)
17 (29.82)
1 (5)
7 (25.92)
26 (31.70)
37 (28.68)
18 (31.58)
1 (5)
8 (29.63)
28 (34.15)
39 (30.23)
22 (38.60)
6 (30)
8 (29.63)
-
25 (19.38)
-
12 (60)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 315 78 (24.76) 89 (28.25) 103 (32.70) 45 (14.28)
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Dalgaon
Sialmari
1. Dhekerigaon
2. Ghiladhari
3. Rangagara
Pathar
4. No.1 Kheteswar
5. Ulubari
336
329
375
249
282
101
99
113
75
85
21 (20.79)
13 (13.13)
24 (21.24)
55 (73.33)
-
24 (23.76)
18 (18.18)
29 (25.66)
20 (26.67)
23 (27.06)
31 (30.69)
16 (16.16)
30 (26.55)
-
26 (30.59)
25 (24.75)
37 (37.37)
30 (26.55)
-
24 (28.23)
-
15 (15.15)
-
-
12 (14.12)
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 473 113 (23.89) 114 (24.10) 103 (21.77) 116 (24.52) 27 (5.71)
Bechimari
1. Baruapara
2. Nadirkash
3. Niz-Dalgaon
4. No.2 Chikanmati
5. Dongpara
220
544
372
78
217
66
163
112
23
65
10 (15.15)
46 (28.22)
20 (17.86)
5 (21.74)
2 (3.08)
15 (22.73)
45 (27.61)
30 (26.73)
5 (21.74)
15 (23.08)
19 (28.79)
35 (21.47)
30 (26.78)
13 (56.52)
25 (38.46)
22 (33.33)
37 (22.70)
32 (28.57)
-
23 (35.38)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 429 83 (19.35) 110 (25.64) 122 (28.44) 114 (26.57)
Kalai-gaon
1. Kamarpara
2. Bechimari
3. Kacharipara
4. Jabarikushi
5. Kawadanga
218
191
194
213
429
65
57
58
64
129
10 (15.38)
8 (14.03)
10 (17.24)
10 (15.62)
8 (6.20)
12 (18.46)
14 (24.56)
12 (20.69)
21 (32.81)
30 (23.25)
22 (33.85)
15 (26.31)
18 (81.03)
33 (51.56)
42 (32.56)
21 (32.31)
20 (35.09)
18 (31.03)
-
49 (37.98)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total of the Block 373 46 (12.33) 89 (23.86) 130 (34.85) 108 (28.95)
Khairabari 1. Kaljuri 179 54 8 (14.81) 13 (24.07) 18 (33.33) 15 (27.78)
District (Total) 2321 490 (21.12) 625 (26.94) 675 (30) 504 (21.72)
Source: (a) Total No. of Households from Census Hand Book, Darrang, 2001
(b) Calculated on the basis of the primary data collected from the field, 2010-11
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In the Kalaigaon development block, 12.33 Percentage in the <0.5 hectares size
class, 23.86 percent in the 0.5- hectares size class; 34.85 percent in the 1-2 hectares size
and 28.95 percent in the 2-5 hectares size class are found. The percentage of
households are 15.38, 14.03, 17.24, 15.62 and 6.20 of the total households in the <0.5
hectares size class in Kamarpara, Bechimari, Kacharipara, Jabarikushi and Kawadanga
villages respectively. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentage of households are
18.46 in Kamarpara, 24.56 percent in bechimari, 20.69 percent in Kacharipara, 32.81
percent in Jabarikushi and 23.25 percent in Kawadanga villages of Kalaigaon
development block. 33.85 Percentage of the households is found in Kamarpara village
in the 1-2 hectares size class. In this size class 26.31 percentages is found in Bechimari
village; 31.03 percentages is found in Kacharipara village, 51.56 percentage and 32.56
percentage are found in Jabarikushi and Kawadanga villages respectively. In the 2-5
hectares size class, the percentage of the household is the highest in Kawadanga
villages (37.98 percent). The percentage of households is 32.31 in Kamarpara, 35.09
percent in Bechimari and 31.03 percent in Kacharipara village in the 2-5 hectares size
class.
Only six villages of Khairabari community development block fall in the
present Darrang district. These villages are inhabited by the indigenous Hindu. So, only
one village is surveyed for this study. The name of the village is Kaljuri. The
percentage of households are 14.81 in the <0.5 hectares size class; 24.07 percent in the
0.5-1 hectares size class; 33.33 hectares in the 1-2 hectares size class and 27.78 percent
in 2-5 hectares size class of the total households in Kaljuri village of Khairabari
community development block.
From the above analysis it can be generalized that the marginal and small sized
landholdings are predominant in all the villages of the district, whereas large sized
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landholdings are absent everywhere. Such a condition is a clear indication of extremely
heavy pressure of agricultural population on arable land. So, it may be said that
increase in small sized holdings and decrease in big sized holdings are detrimental to
agricultural development as the modern methods of agricultural operation cannot be
adopted in landholdings of economically non-feasible size. In spite of hard labour, the
farmers of the district are not able to break the vicious circle of poverty.
Landholding Structure
It has already been said that in 31 selected villages distributed in 7 community
development blocks, 2289 households are surveyed. The total landholding area covered
by these households is 2159.64 hectares and out of this area 1797.51 hectares
accounting for 83.23 per cent constitute operational area. The average size of total
landholdings is 0.94 hectares and that of operational holdings is 0.78 hectares only. The
total basti area is 362.13 hectares and of the total landholdings 16.77 percent are
covered by the basti area (Table 3.2). Basti area is the important component of land use
in the rural areas of Darrang where horticulture, pisciculture, bamboo and vegetables
are grown besides the houses of the families.
Table 3.2 indicates that there are notable variations in the distribution of all
categories of landholdings from different development blocks to blocks. The size of a
standard operational holding is fixed by socio-economic conditions in accordance with
the type of farming practised. In the different development blocks, a definite standard
size of farm cannot be maintained because of the increasing pressure of agricultural
population on arable land and the working of the law of inheritance. These two factors
are responsible for the splitting of large sized holdings into small and marginal sized. It
is found that in Sipajhar development block, the average size of operational holding is
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1.23 hectares and the average size of landholding is 1.56 hectares. The average size of
landholding is 0.76 hectares whereas the operational holding is 0.63 hectares in Pub-
Mangaldai development block. In Pachim-Mangaldai development block, the average
size of land holdings is 0.78 hectares and the average size of operational holdings is
0.66 hectares. In Dalgaon-Sialmari development block, the average size of landholding
is 0.88 hectares whereas the operational holding is 0.78 hectares. The average size of
operational holding is only 0.57 hectares and land holding is 0.65 hectares in Bechimari
development block. In Kalaigaon development blocks, the average size of holdings is
1.06 hectares and the operational holding is 0.87 hectares. In Khairabari development
block, the average size of holdings is 1.06 hectares and the average size of operational
holdings is 0.74 hectares. In Khairabari development block, the average size of
holdings is 1.06 hectares and the average percentage of basti area is 21.01 in Sipajhar,
16.69 percent in Pub- Mangaldai, 16.06 percent in Pachim- Mangaldai, 11.81 percent in
Dalgaon – Sialmari, 12.61 Percent in Bechimari, 18.37 per cent in Kalaigaon and 30.14
per cent in Khairabari development block. It is seen that the percentage of basti area is
74
Table 3.2: Landholding Structure in Selected Villages of Different Community
Development Blocks of Darrang District, 2010-11
(Area in hectares)
Source: Calculated on the Basis of the Primary Data Collected from the Field, 2010-11
highest in the case of the blocks where most of the people are indigenous and lowest in
the case of the blocks where immigrant origin farmers are inhabited. This is natural
because of the reasons that the immigrants are comparatively the new settlers and it is
more difficult to raise basti land in the low-lying chars where most of them live. The
immigrant people of the char villages plant plantain trees beside their houses. Due to
the absence of raised grounds, it is not possible for them to make spacious bastis.
On the other hand, the basti area of the household of the indigenous farmers is
much larger. Every household of the indigenous farmers has the tendency to grow a
basti accompanied by fruit trees and other trees with a pond or a small tank. In the
Kharkhowapara village of Sipajhar block and Kaljuri village of Khairabari
development block, for example all kinds of fruit trees, bamboo, vegetables and other
trees are ground besides the houses of the peasant families.
Name of
the Blocks
Total
No. of
villages
surveyed
Total No.
of
Household
surveyed
Total
operational
area
Average
size of
operational
area
Total
Basti
area
Basti
area as
% of
total
land
holdings
Total
land
holdings
area
Average
size of
total
land-
holdings
Sipajhar 5 306 377.6 1.23 100.47 21.01 478.07 1.56
Pub-
Mangaldai
5 371 235.2 0.63 47.13 16.69 282.33 0.76
Pachim-
Mangaldai
5 315 206.92 0.66 39.6 16.06 246.52 0.78
Dalgaon-
Sialmari
5 473 368.26 0.78 49.33 11.81 417.59 0.88
Bechimari 5 429 245.33 0.57 35.4 12.61 280.73 0.65
Kalaigaon 5 373 324.33 0.87 73 18.37 397.33 1.06
Khairabari 1 54 39.87 0.74 17.2 30.14 57.07 1.06
District
(Total)
31 2289 1797.51 0.78 362.13 16.77 2159.64 0.94
75
It is seen that the average size of land holdings in different development blocks
is relatively small as a result of the increasing number of agricultural population
contributed mainly by the immigrant origin Muslim farmers. The alarmingly small size
of landholdings on the average indicates clearly the prevalence of poverty among the
farmers in the district.
3.2.2 Labour Force
The availability of labour, its quantity and quality at the periods of demand
have great influence on the agricultural land use and decision making process of the
farmer. Labour is the most important factor of agricultural development in Darrang
district. In the district, there are various types of agricultural labourers i.e. unskilled,
illiterate and poor. But, gradually it is seen that Muslim of immigrant origin are going
to be skilled labourers.
From the table 3.3 it is seen that out of total number of workers in the different
community development blocks, four categories of workers are categorized i.e. (a)
cultivators, (b) agricultural labourers, (c) household industry workers and (d) other
workers. Out of the total number of workers, the percentage of cultivators in Sipajhar
development block is 58.5; in both Pub-Mangaldai and Pachim Mangaldai development
block is 53.0; in Dalgaon-Sialmari development block is 43.8; in Bechimari
development block is 40.6; in Kalaigaon development block is 62.7 and in Khairabari
development block is 62.4. On the other hand, the percentage of agricultural labourers
is the highest in Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari development blocks which is 28.5
percent and 24.9 percent respectively. It is lowest in Khairabari development block
which is only 9.9 percent out of the total number of workers. In Sipajhar and Pachim-
Mangaldai development blocks, the percentage of agricultural labourers is 11 percent.
76
In Pub-Mangaldai and Kalaigaon development blocks, it is 17 percent out of the total
number of workers. Most of the people of the Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari
development blocks are Muslims of immigrant origin. Even though they are illiterate
and poor, they are hard working and skilled labourers. They cultivate different types of
crops commercially. In these two development blocks, the pressure of population on
agricultural land is very high and the intensity of cropping is also highest and so the
very high proportion of agricultural labourers is seen in these blocks. But the other
development blocks of the district are inhabited by the indigenous Hindu people. They
cultivate crops for subsistence living only. Most of the workers employed in tertiary
Table 3.3: Distribution of Workers in Different Community Development Blocks
of Darrang District, 2001
(Figures in brackets indicate the percentage)
Name of
Block
Total
number of
workers
Category of workers
Cultivators Agricultural
labourers
Household
industry workers
Other
workers
Sipajhar 72,987
(36.9)
42,678
(58.5)
8,710
(11.9)
3,539
(4.8)
18,060
(24.7)
Pub
Mangaldai
41,343
(31.4)
21,927
(53.0)
7,083
(17.1)
764
(1.8)
11,569
(28.0)
Pachim
Mangaldai
32,120
(38.6)
17,030
(53.0)
3,544
(11.0)
1,095
(3.4)
10,451
(32.5)
Dalgaon –
Sialmari
36.310
(27.8)
15,918
(43.8)
9,051
(24.9)
790
(2.2)
10,551
(29.1)
Bechimari 34,098
(40.9)
13,839
(40.6)
8,714
(28.5)
672
(2.0)
10,873
(31.9)
Kalaigaon 12,235
(17.5)
7,679
(62.7)
2,102
(17.2)
218
(1.8)
2,236
(18.3)
Khairabari 2,526
(36.7)
1,577
(62.4)
250
(9.9)
174
(6.9)
525
(20.8)
District
Total
231619 120648 39454 7252 64265
Source: District Census Handbook, Darrang, 2001
77
occupation, particularly in services as well as the virtual absence of immigrant peasants
are some of the causes responsible for low percentage of agricultural labourers in the
other development blocks of the district. Otherwise, the district is industrially
backward, and so the percentage of industry workers is low in the different community
development blocks.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the people of this district. Even
those workers engaged in government offices, educational institutions and in
miscellaneous workers, have not left their attachment to agriculture. So, it may be said
that the district has no appreciable industrial activities. The percentage of other workers
is also high in Pachim-Mangaldai, Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari development
blocks i.e. 32.5, 31.9 and 29.1 respectively out of the total number of workers. Thus, it
clearly indicates that the pattern of land use, topography, farming methods, intensity of
cropping etc. are determined by the availability of agricultural labourers of a region.
3.2.3 Land Revenue System
Darrang as a district of the day formed part of different kingdoms at different
periods of time and its real history as a geographical unit began in 1615 A.D. when Bali
Narayan alias Dharma Narayan, a descendant of Mahaveer Chila Rai was as the king of
Darrang by Ahom king Pratap Singha.
Land administration in the study area is different during different periods of
time. For the realization of revenue, the kings or the rulers adopted different land
revenue systems. When the district was ruled by the Kirat or the Bodo kings, there were
perhaps various principalities under the king headed by Bodo or non Bodo landlords.
Some rock inscriptions mention about officers concerned with land and land revenue
administrative like Chauroadharnika and Chota-bhata together. The duties of the latter
have not been defined anywhere. These two terms are also noticed in many records and
78
also by Bana, the Bodo king. This area was once ruled over by the Polas and during
18th
century various types of land included arable land (Kshetra), waste land (khila),
and inferior land (Apakrista bhumi). The capacity of the land is said to have been
assessed in terms of drone and pataka which are ancient terms of weights and
measurements noticed in the Kushana and Gupta inscriptions. Thus, we can ascertain
that in India and the North–East there were Choudhangs as land lords at that time
because Choudhary is a term derivative of Chow or Chou (tai word, meaning owner of
lord) and Dhara (a Sanskrit word meaning land or earth). This is possible because
Kanishka the great Kushan king introduced an administrative system in India by
borrowing from Nan Chow Kingdom which was then ruled over by the Tais and the
route over by the connecting Kanshka” scapital with Nan Chow was through Darrang
district, namely through the Karianpar duar and Udalguri leading to Chouna through
which road Hiwen Tsang made his passage from China to India.
The Kochs had a unique system of revenue administration of their own. Lands
were usually divided by the Koch Kings into two kinds: cultivable and uncultivable and
the latter included forests, marshes, roads, markets, swamps and other waste land called
Khas lands. Cultivable lands were again of two categories, namely, rented or Khalsa
and rent free or Khangi. Though king was the actual owner of the soil, but cultivators’
right over their hereditary possessions was never questioned by him. The states given to
the relatives of the king (Petbhat) were subject to be taken over by the king after the
guarantees’ death. The Jaigir land was allowed to be held by the state officers during
the period of their service only and was thus transferable. Available cultivable land
were distributed among the peasants and their records were kept by the concerning
officers without allowing them to exercise their hereditary rights over them. They were
to pay a fixed amount of revenue or a fraction of their produce to the royal treasury. In
79
any case; the king could occupy or bring under his control and any kind of land
according to the rules and custom of the kingdom prevalent during that period.
The Ahom system of land and revenue administration is new to this area. The
Royal Ahom Constitution provided that the land, soil and also the people living within
the geographical area of the royal occupation was the absolute property of the
Sovereign and the raiyats held the land under different conditions. The whole
population was classified into Khels consisting of 1000 to 5000 persons and each Khel
was sub-divided into Gots comprising of three or four Paiks or service-rendering male
citezens. All such citizens between the age group of 15 years and 50 years was a Paik
and had to render service to the state throughout the year. In return every member of
the Got was allowed two puras of paddy land or Guamati free of rent. The levy of the
first man in a Got was known as a Mul of the second, a Dewal and the third, a Tewal.
When the Mul was inactive service, the other two remained ready in their respective
head quarters for rendering State service at any time required and cultivated not only
their own shares but of the Mul also. Every paik was allowed a plot of one Halisa of
land for his house and garden for which he paid one rupee per year as house tax or hoe-
tax. If a paik cultivated paddy land in excess of his two puras, he had to pay an
additional land tax of rupee one per pura. The non cultivating paiks had to pay a higher
rate of tax depending upon the nature of the trade and profession and the hill people had
to pay a nominal hoe-tax or house tax as a token of their being citizens of state. David
Scott commended that during the Ahom rule there was no division of land in Assam
amongst a comparatively small number of individuals such as seen in feudal countries
in Europe and in Bengal, and the cultivated soil may be considered as the property of
the Paiks or peasents owing to service to the State to whom it was allotted.
80
After 1615 A.D. the subjugated Koch Kings of Darrang are believed to have
patterned their revenue administration after that of the Ahom.
A new method for collection of revenues in Darrang was adopted during the
reign of Rudra Singh’s successor Siva Singha. The higher rates of assessment which
these successive surveys and settlement operations introduced told very heavy upon the
taxpaying power of the poor subjects of Darrang. The Darrang districts Gazettear in
1685, some areas of Darrang were surveyed under the orders of Ahom king Gadadhar
Singha.
The types of tenure prevalent in Darrang during that period were Khiraj and
Lakhiraj which included Brahmottar, Debottar and Dharmottar lands. For the purpose
of revenue administration various categories of officers such as Kakati, Barua, Saikia,
Hazarika, Rajkhowa, Saharia, Phukan etc. were appointed. The Darrang king had to
place 600 paiks under the disposal of the Barohukan, the Ahom viceroy of Western
Assam. The ‘Posa’ system was also introduced in order to prevent frequent inroads of
the Bhutias into the Khaling duar, Buriguma duar and Kariapar duar. Accoding to this
system, paiks of the duar areas had to pay annually a fixed quota of goods in kind to
each of the hill-tribes for which remission of revenue to the Ahom rulers was granted to
these paiks in proportion to the amount of possa. Later on these duars were handed over
to the Bhutias according to a treaty concluded between the Bhutan Government and the
Ahom King. Other taxes levied by the Ahoms were Kar-Katal, Pad, Panchak, Baith,
Bepar, Chor, Sinla, Jalkar, Jawkhar, Dhumas, Ghamesa, Maresha, Dan, Ghat, Khut,
Danda, Bandha, Hat, Faat, Choki etc.
After the British came the territory from Barnadi in the west to Biswanath in the
east was tagged with Lower Assam and was administered from Gauhati till 1833, when
it was separated and constituted into a district known as Darrang with head quarters at
81
Mangaldai. However, the head quarters of the district was shifted from Mangaldai to
Tezpur in 1835 due to frequent floods. The Darrang Raja family was let to enjoy a
special class of Niz-Khiraj estates and ex-king of Darrang, Dharjya Narayan was paid a
penson of Rs. 360/= per years. The only important alteration adopted was the
imposition of a pol-tax of three rupees per paik in lieu of the old liability to personal
service for three or four months in the year. This was so, because the Britishers were
interested in land revenue only and in order that revenues were nicely and highly
collected, the whole area of a district was divided into Mouza or Mahal and the dues
realisable from all persons resident in a given mouza was collected by the officer–in–
charge of it who were known as Mauzader or Patgiri or Choudhuriy, Baishya, Kakati.
The agricultural lands were divided into Basti, Rupit, Bao-Tali and Faringati.
The Assam Land and Revenue Regulation that was enacted in 1886 covered
Darrang district too and it is still in force. This Regulation granted legal sanction to the
existing settlement rules issued in 1870. All owners of land were divided into three
classes, viz (1) Proprietors including the owners of revenue free estates, fee–simple
estates and permanently settled estates, (2) Landholders including the settlement
holders of land held directly from the Government under lease for a period excluding
ten years or who had held land for ten years continuously before the regulation came
into force and (3) settlement holders other than land holders including persons holding
land directly from the Government under annual leases, the terms of which is,
ordinarily issued when the land has been taken up for dwelling houses or for permanent
cultivation. Such lease is valid from one land settlement operation to the next one. On
the other hand, an annual lease is granted for a year only and it confers no rights of
inheritance, transfer and sub-letting.
82
The Assam State Acquision Zamidaries Act., 1957 was enacted which also
covered Darrang district to completely abolish the Zamindari System in permanently
settle portions of the state and to bring the tenants directly under the government. Up to
November 1976, all the proprietory rights and the rights of the tenure holders expecting
a few minor tenures have been acquired covering an area of 6.77 lakh hectares.
By another Act., Entitled, “The Assam Acquisition” of lands belonging to
Religious and Charitable Institution of Public Nature Act. 1959 an area of 0.44 lakh
hectares belonging to 164 institution have been acquired. So far and the tenants have
come directly under the institutions with the status of a land holder as in the temporally
settle areas. In the district of Darrang, Raiyatwari System of land tenure has been
prevailing for quite some time. The main advantages of this system are that-(1) there is
no sub-institution and the cultivator is in direct relation with the Government, (ii) there
are no parasitic intermediaries. (iii) The actual tillers of the soil cannot be ejected
easily.
But certain defects of this system are observed such as (i) the land in this areas
has passed often into the hands of non-agriculturists and rich agriculturists, the number
of landless labourers has increased and the size of holdings has decreased. (ii) it is
defective in the method of assessment of land revenue which gives power to the
settlement Officer”, “Kanango” (a junior Revenue Officer) and Mandal” (surveyor),
whose estimates are based on more guess work (iii) the individual assessment has
destroyed the collective basis of village life and (iv) the money Landers become very
prominent in the Raiyatwari areas with their vested financial support to the small land
holders. As a result, a new class of land lord begins to raise in these areas dispossessive
the actual tillers of the soil of their proprietorship.
83
The tenant who cultivates land on lease which is generally annual, is not sure
how long the land would remain in his possessions as the land lord has the power to
resume that land after the end of the year. Thus, the tenant has no permanent interest in
the land. In many cases, land is leased out on the share – cropping basis. Both the legal
forms of land ownership introduced by the British Zamindari and Raiyatwari are found
to be defective for agricultural development and removal of socio- economic injustice.
After independence of the country, the revenue collection policy was adopted to
abolish the Zamindari System but the Raiyatwari System was retained. The ideology of
the Indian Democratic Govt. is to create a class of small farmer proprietors in the field
of agriculture which is possible only through the Raiyatwari System of land tenure. So
in the district of Darrang increasingly larger areas have been passing under open
tenancy, while a substantial proportion of area has been increasingly utilized under
share-cropping system.
For the convenience of revenue collection, the district of Darrang has been
divided into 18 Mauzas comprising a mauzadar in each mauza. These 18 mauzas are-:
(1) Lakrai Mauza, (2) Hindughopa, (3) Sipajhar, (4) Bonmajha, (5) Dipila, (6)
Rainakuchi, (7) Sarabari (8) Chinakona, (9) Kalaigaon, (10) Rangamati, (11) Chapai,
(12) Dahi, (13) Shyamabari, (14) Kharupetia, (15) Pub-Sialmari, (16) Pachim-Sialmari,
(17) Pub-Dalgaon and (18) Pachim-Dalgaon.
3.2.4 Mechanization
Mechanization is also an important socio-economic factor affecting agricultural
development of the district Darrang. The technological changes including the use of
modern hand tools, animals drawn implements, tractors, thrashers and more economic
patterns of farm management play a vital role in the selection of crops grown and
decision-making at the farm level. These changes help in improving the crop yields.
84
For the development of agriculture in the district of Darrang, different kinds of
agricultural machinery have been used by the farmers of the district. The implements
have been provided by the Government to the farmers at free of cost and some are
given at subsidy rates. Some farmers might purchase agricultural implements directly
without the knowledge of the blocks and the Agro-Industries Department. Iron-based
plough and power tiller are used more by the Muslim farmers of immigrant origin. The
position of Dalgaon-Sialmari and Bechimari development blocks will be the highest in
the use of agricultural implements and machineries because the land and soil of these
two blocks are comparatively suitable for the use of the machinery and the farmers are
also eager to use them more than the farmers of other development blocks.
3.2.5 Transportation Facilities
The transportation system exercises tremendous influence over the structure of
economy and socio-economic development process in a region. Transport is one of the
most important components of infrastructure for the development of agriculture. This is
not only necessary for the movement of agricultural products but also for the supply of
fertilizers, machineries, seeds and other requirements of the farmers. Efficient transport
system can save time when grains and other crops are being moved from the farmer’s
home to the market. Water transport is not well developed in the district and railway
system is totally absent in the district. There is insignificant effect of the water
transportation in the region. Water transport is used only to cross the Brahmaputra with
small portion of a agricultural produce. In summer when the drainages are full of water
and the char areas of the Brahmaputra are inundated, boats are used for the movement
of all kinds of goods, including agricultural produce by the farmers living in the char
areas. In the district the most important system of transportation is the roads of different
kinds namely matelled roads, gravel roads, katcha roads, cart tract and footpaths. Main
85
roads are constructed by the P.W.D. and the small roads particularly the village roads
are built by the panchayats. All the roads and paths are needed for the movement of
farmer’s agricultural produce.
The district has a total road length of 1659 km. The National Highway-52
passing through the east-west direction covers a total length of 79 km. in the district
(Fig. 3.2). The road distance from Tezpur to Baihata Chariali is 146 km and Baihata to
Guwahati is 35 km. The road distance from Mangaldai to Guwahati is 68 km. The
feeder roads coming out from this National Highway touch the floodplain zone in the
south and built-up zone in the north. There is high spatial variation of roads within the
region. Such variations are quite apparent when road density (road length per 100 km2)
and road kilometer (road length per 1000 population) are taken into consideration. The
physiography, drainage, soil condition and natural hazards like floods, bank erosion
and government attitude and the nature of the demand of the people are responsible for
high variations of road network development in the different development blocks of the
district.
Table 3.4: Block Level Distribution of Road Density, Darrang District, 2010-11
Blocks Area (km2) Metalled road (km) Density (km/100
2)
Sipajhar 483.71 334.49 69
Pub-Mangaldai 226.41 141.00 62
Pachim-Mangaldai 179.54 210.00 116
Dalgaon-Sialmari 208.77 120.68 57
Bechimari 178.16 124.18 69
Kalaigaon 128.73 262.80 204
Khairabari 15.18 12.00 79 Source: P.W.D. Offices, Mangaldai
Table 3.5: Block Level Category of Road Density
Category Road density (km/1002) Name of the Blocks
High Above 200 Kalaigaon
Moderate 100 – 200 Pachim- Mangaldai
Low Below 100 Sipajhar, Pub-Mangaldai,
Dalgaon-Sialmari,
Bechimari, Khairabari Source: Classification from the table 3.4
86
It is seen that the highest density is observed in Kalaigaon development block
(204 km/1002 km) and moderate density is observed in Pachim-Mangaldai
development block (116 km/100km2). Kalaigaon development block is located in the
built-up zone and roads are stable here. In Pachim Mangaldai development block,
which is located in the middle part of the district the roads are stable and convenient.
Low density (Below 100 km/100 km2) is found to be characterized by as many as five
development blocks (Table 3.5 and fig 3.1). These blocks are partly located in the built-
up zone and partly in the chronically flood affected zone. However, the blocks that are
located in the chronically flood affected plain zone have the low density because of
recurring floods, river erosion and sandy soil conditions. The strikingly low density of
roads in the district confirms that a high percentage of population and a large area
suffer from adequate road facilities.
87
88
89
3.2.6 Marketing Facilities
Market places are the fundamental focal points of socio-economic life (Ghosal,
1972). Marketing is one of the stimulating factors for the development of agriculture in
any region. Of course, extension of market facilities are connected with sufficient
transport networks in a region. So marketing, transport systems, fertilizers, irrigation
etc. all lead to the intensification of crops and rapid changes in the cropping pattern.
Commercial crops like potato, jute, vegetables can be produced if good marketing and
transport facilities are available. The high yielding varieties fetch better income to the
peasants only if a good market for the commodity is available within the
neighbourhood of the place of production or the produce can be transported with ease
and with less transportation charges in the big towns and places of demand. Many a
times due to the non-availability of marketing, cold storage and ware-housing facilities,
the production is damaged. This may discourage the peasants to adopt high yielding
varieties.
In the Darrang district, marketing facility was not good before the formation of
the different development blocks. In the different development blocks weekly, bi-
weekly and daily markets are seen. The number of markets increased as the Anchalik
Panchayats sought extra incomes to meet their various expenses. So bazars and markets
have grown up at first on competition basis. Later on, all the cultivators in collaboration
with the other enlightened persons started daily markets generally in the semi-urban
areas and at the road crossing spots where small shops had already grown up.
The table 3.6 shows the spatial distribution of markets in the different
development blocks of the district in 2009-10. The number of market is highest i.e. 26
in Sipajhar development block. There are 29 weekly, 4 bi-weekly and 25 daily markets
in the district in 2009-10. In Sipajhar development block, there are 18 weekly, 2 bi-
90
weekly and 6 daily markets. The number of weekly markets in Pub-Mangaldai
development block is 1 and daily market is 5. In Pachim-Mangaldai development block
only 5 weekly markets are seen. In Dalgaon-Sialmari development block, the number
of markets is 6; which is daily markets. The number of weekly market is 1, bi-weekly is
1 and daily market is 7 in Bechimari development block. The number of weekly market
is highest in Kalaigaon development block and in Khairabari development block only 1
weekly market is seen. The Balugaon and Bechimari markets are the two leading
markets in Dalgaon-Sialmari and Bechimari development blocks respectively. The
farmers sell their vegetables potato, jute and other crops in these two markets which sit
weekly as well as daily. In the weekly market the farmers sell their crops, vegetables,
poultry, cows and goats and other commodities. But the daily markets are meant for
buying and selling of vegetables only. As these two development blocks are famous for
production of vegetables, there is growing demand for daily markets where the farmers
can sell their vegetables daily. Subsequently the weekly markets are converted into
daily markets. The farmers bring their commodities to the market in thelas, bullock
carts and in light vehicles. There are local purchasers as well as those who come from
other districts. They buy the vegetables and sent them to the different places for sale.
For example, a large quantity of vegetables from the two blocks are exported to various
places of both upper and lower Assam like Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Dhemaji, Lakhimpur,
Jorhat, Guwahati and other places.
91
Table 3.6: Spatial Distribution of Markets of Darrang District, 2009-10
Name of the Blocks Distribution of Markets
Weekly Bi-weekly Daily Total
1.Sipajhar 18 2 6 26
2.Pub-Mangaldai 1 -- 5 6
3.Pachim-Mangaldai 5 -- -- 5
4.Dalgaon-Sialmari -- -- 6 6
5.Bechimari 1 1 7 9
6.Kalaigaon 3 1 1 5
7.Khairabari 1 -- -- --
Source: Seven Community Development Block offices, Darrang
The markets of Sipajhar development block are famous for winter rice, different
types of vegetables and clothes and other commodities. The markets of Pub-Mangaldai
and Pachim-Mangaldai development blocks are famous for different types of crops and
the goods made of bamboo and cane. The weekly markets of Kalaigaon development
block are famous for different types of rice, vegetables, poultry, cows, goats and other
commodities.
Although the road communication is improving, yet the transportation system is
not very favourable. The buses and trucks do not have access to all the marketing
places. For this constraint, agricultural commodities may not be brought to all the
markets or cannot be sent to other places easily. So one has go to distant markets for
the transaction of his agricultural goods. Bullocks and buffaloes driven carts are still
used to carry the agricultural produce to the markets. However, this system of transport
has been gradually decreasing and in its place, thelas are used to a large extent. Bazar
buses and trucks are used in limited bazaar of importance. Mini trucks and buses are
used where big buses and trucks cannot ply. The road communication system from the
few big market places in the district to those outside is now satisfactory. Trucks are
regularly plying from the market places like Kharupetia, Bechimari, Balugaon, Kopati,
92
Lalpool, Tangni, Kalaigaon and Bhakatpara to other big market places outside the
district. Agricultural produce of the char areas are sold in the local markets of the char
areas, in the markets of nearby built-up area, in the market places of the southern bank
of the Brahmaputra, like Chandrapur, Kajali, Panikhaity, Tatimari and in the Guwahati
city through water transport.
Reference:
Das, M. M. (1984): Peasant Agriculture in Assam: A Structural Analysis, Inter –
India publications, New Delhi.
Das, M. M. (1995) : “Land Holding Structure”. A problem in Peasant Agriculture in
Assam, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
District Census Hand Book, 1991
District Census Hand Book, 2001
Gangopadhyay, D. K. (1990): Revenue Administration in Assam, Indian Administrative
Service, Government of Assam
Goswami, D.N. and Das, M.M.(1999): “Peasant’s Response to Agricultural Innovation
in a Backward Area of Assam”, Journal of Geography, vol.
Gogoi,J., (2002) ; Agrarian System of Mediaval Assam, Concept Publishing Company,
New Delhi.
Hussain, M, (1997) Systematic Agricultural Geography, Rewat Publications, Jaipur and
New Delhi. pp – 122-132
93
Konwar, C., (2002) : Socio-Economic Problems of Agricultural development in
Morigaon Sub-Division, M.Phil Dissertation, Gauhaty University.
Negi, B.S., (2007): Agricultural Geography, Kedar Nath Ram Nath Published.
Taher, M.(1976): “Geo-Economic Basis of Population Distribution in Mangaldai Sub-
division. Assam”, The North Eastern Geographer, Vol. VIII,