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SIXTH EDITION
COUNTRIES AND CONCEPTS
AN INTRODUCTIONTO COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Michael G. RoskinLycoming College
PRENTICE HALL, UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NEW JERSEY 07458
CONTENTS
A NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS xxi
CHAPTER 1 WHAT TO LOOK FOR 1
Looking for Quarrels 1The Structure of This Book 2The Impact of the Past 3
• The Pive Crises of Nation Building 5The Key Institutions 6
• Left, Right, and Center 6 • What about Names and Dates? 7Political Attitudes 8
• Parliamentary versus Presidential Systems 9 • The CivicCulture Study 10 • What Is "Ideology"? 11
Patterns of Interaction 12• The Politics of Social Cleavages 13 • How Important Is the EuropeanUnion? 14
What People Quarrel About 15• The Importance of Being Comparative 16
Vocabulary Building 16Further Reference 17
PARTI GREAT BRITAIN 19
CHAPTER 2 BRITAIN: THE IMPACT OF THE PAST 20
• The United Kingdom 21 • Britain's French Legacy 22Magna Carta 22
• The Common Law 23The Rise of Parliament 23
i i i
iv CONTENTS
Henry VIII 24Parliament versus King 25
• Premature Democrats 25 • Acton's Dictum 26Cromwell's Commonwealth 26The "Glorious Revolution" 26The Rise of the Prime Minister 27The Democratization of Parliament 27
• Conservative Geniuses: Burke and Disraeli 29
The Rise of the Welfare State 29• Comparing: The Genesis of Two Welfare States 30
Vocabulary Building 31Further Reference 31
CHAPTER 3 BRITAIN: THE KEY INSTITUTIONS 32
The Monarch 32• Comparing: The Last Political Monarch 34
The Cabinet 34• The Queen Chooses a New Prime Minister 35
The Prime Minister 37• Tony Blair: A British Clinton? 37
The Commons 38• The Deceptive No. 10 Downing Street 39
How the Commons Works 40 f
• How Much Are Parliamentarians Paid? 40 • What to Do with Lords? 42
The Parties 43• Two-Party Systems: Variations on a British Theme 43
Vocabulary Building 45Further Reference 45
CHAPTER 4 BRITISH POLITICAL ATTITUDES 46
"Public" Schools 47• What to Do with "Public" Schools? 47
"Oxbridge" 48Class and Voting 48The Deferential British? 49
• The 1997 Elections: Class Plus Region 50
British Civility 50Pragmatism 51
• Football Hooliganism 51 • The Shape of the British Electorate 52
CONTENTS
Traditions and Symbols 53Legitimacy and Authority 53The Ulster Ulcer 54
• The IRA: Ballots and Bullets 55A Changing Political Culture 55Vocabulary Building 56Further Reference 56
CHAPTER 5 BRITAIN: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 57
• 1997: Finally, Labour 58National and Local Party 58Politics within the Parties 59
• The Struggle of the Liberal Democrats 60 • Saving Labour from theUnions 61 • The "Poll Tax" Issue 62
Parties and Interest Groups 62The Parties Face Each Other 63
• The Profumo Scandal 64The Cabinet and the Civil Servants 64
• The Utility of Dignity 65 • Treasury: The Real Power 66The Civil Service and Interest Groups 66What about Democracy? 67Vocabulary Building 68Further Reference 68 ^
CHAPTER 6 WHAT BRITONS QUARREL ABOUT 69
The "British Disease" 69• "Pluralistic Stagnation" 70
The Thatcher Cure 70• The Flip Side of the Welfare State 71 • Comparing: The ProductivityRace 72 • Comparing: Thatchernomics and Reaganomics 73• The Trouble with National Health 74
Scottish and Welsh Nationalism 74• What to Do with Northern Ireland? 76
British Racism 77Britain and Europe 78
• Britain's Education Dilemma 79Great Britain or Little England? 80Vocabulary Building 80Further Reference 81
vi CONTENTS
PART II FRANCE 83
CHAPTER 7 FRANCE: THE IMPACT OF THE PAST 84
The Roman Influence 84The Rise of French Absolutism 85
• Great French Expressions: "Paris Is Worth a Mass" 85
Louis XrV: The High Point of Absolutism 86Why the French Revolution? 86
• Great French Expressions: "L'etat, c'est moi" 86 • Great FrenchExpressions: "Let Them Eat Cake" 87 • Three French Geniuses: Voltaire,Montesquieu, Rousseau 88
From Freedom to Tyranny 88• A Tale of Two Flags 89 • The Original Chauvinist 90
The Bourbon Restoration 90• A Theory of Revolution 91 • Great French Expressions: "They LearnedNothing and They Forgot Nothing" 92
The Third Republic 92Vichy: France Splits Again 93
• The Dreyfus Affair 93The Fourth Republic 94Vocabulary Building 95Further Reference 95
CHAPTER 8 FRANCE: THE KEY INSTITUTIONS 96
A Semipresidential System 96• Parliamentary versus Presidential Systems 97 • Great FrenchExpressions: Cohabitation 99 • The Presidential Election of 1995 100
Premier and Cabinet 100• A Gaullist Technocrat as President 101
• Great French Expressions: "Plus ca change, plus c'est la meme chose" 103
The National Assembly 103• Comparing: The Israeli Parliamentary System 104
• A Senate That Fights Back 105
The Party System 105• The Parliamentary Elections of 1997 106 • Comparing: A FrenchSupreme Court? 108
A Decentralized Unitary System 108Vocabulary Building 109Further Reference 109
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER 9 FRENCH POLITICAL ATTITUDES 111
• How to Celebrate a 200-Year-Old Revolution 112Historical Roots of French Attitudes 112A Climate of Mistrust 113
• "La Marseillaise" 113 • Great French Expressions: "L'enfer, c'est lesautres" 114
The Nasty Split 114• French and American Party Identification 115 • Comparing: TheInstability of Split Societies 116
School for Grinds 116• French Elections: The Persistence of Religion 117 • French Elections:The Persistence of Region 118
The "Great Schools" 118• How Would You Do on the "Bac"? 119 • Rule of the Enarchs 120
The Fear of "Face to Face" 120Freedom or Authority? 121
• Comparing: French and American Press Conferences 121Social Class 122The Great Calming Down 122
• Great French Expressions: "The Heart Is on the Left, but the Billfold Ison the Right" 123 • The French Turn Centrist 124
Vocabulary Building 125Further Reference 125
CHAPTER 10 FRANCE: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 126
The Emerging Party System 127The Socialists and the Communists 127
• The French Left: Smother Thy Brother 128The Gaullists and Republicans 129
• Mitterrand Skunks Chirac 130 • Balladur Upstages Mitterrand 131The Stalemate Cycle 131
• The Events of May 1968 132Referendum Madness 133
• Boring! Boring! No New Faces 135Fragmented Labor Unions 135
• Business and the Bureaucracy 136 • "Putting on the Slippers" 137The Eternal Bureaucracy 137
• The Real Power: The Inspection 138Government by Bureaucracy 139
viii CONTENTS
Vocabulary Building 139Further Reference 140
CHAPTER 11 WHAT THE FRENCH QUARREL ABOUT 141
• Nukes, French Style 142Big Guys versus Little Guys 142
• The Poujadists: A Classic Flash Party 143The Nationalization Question 144
• The Concorde: A Prestigious Dinosaur 145The Unemployment Horror 146
• Comparing: Europe Adopts U.S.-Style Conservatism 146• Is There a VAT in Your Future? 147
France's Racial Problem 148• The National Front: The Angry Party 149
France's Education Problems 149The Covering Up of Things Past 150
• Comparing: How U.S. and French Youth Handle the School Problem 150Vocabulary Building 151Further Reference 151
PART III GERMANY 153
CHAPTER 12 GERMANY: THE IMPACT OF THE PAST 154
Who Are the Germans? 154The Fragmented Nation 155
• The Changing Shape of Germany 156 • Impressive German Words:Obrigkeit 158
The Rise of Prussia 158German Nationalism 159
• Impressive German Words: Machtstaat • Impressive German Words:Volksgeist 160
The Second Reich 160• Bismarck's Dubious Legacy 161 • Impressive German Words:Kulturkampf 162
The Catastrophe: World War I 162Republic without Democrats 163
• Impressive German Words: Dolchstoss 163 • The Horrors of PolarizedPluralism 164 • Impressive German Words: Gleichschaltung 165• Impressive German Words: Lebensraum 166
CONTENTS ix
The Third Reich 166• Might Have Been: The Plot to Kill Hitler 167 • Another Tale of TwoFlags 168
The Occupation 168Vocabulary Building 169Further Reference 169
CHAPTER 13 GERMANY: THE KEY INSTITUTIONS 170
The President 170• Impressive German Words: Bundesrepublik 171
The Chancellor 171• Impressive German Words: Grundgesetz 172
The Cabinet 172• Der Alte: Adenauer 173• Helmut Kohl: The Underestimated Chancellor 174
The Bundestag 175• The Grand Coalition: A Dangerous Experiment 175
The Constitutional Court 177• The Bundesrat: A Useful Upper House 178
The Parties 178• Impressive German Words: Regierungsfahig 179 • Comparing: Germany'sElectoral System: An Export Product 180
A Split Electoral System 180• "You Have Two Votes": A German Ballot 181 • 1994: A Modified PRSystem in Action 182
Vocabulary Building 183Further Reference 183
CHAPTER 14 GERMAN POLITICAL ATTITUDES 184
The Moral Vacuum 185• Impressive German Words: Gehorsamkeit 185 • Impressive GermanWords: Vergangenheitsbewaltigung 186
Forgetting the Past 186• TheRiseof'Postmaterialism" 187 • A German "Generation X"? 188
The Generation Gap 188A New German Democracy 189
• Germany's Nationalistic "New Right" 190The Disorienting Unification 190
• Willy Brandt: A German Mr. Clean 191
CONTENTS
The End of Shell Shock 192• Impressive German Words: Politikverdrossenheit 193
The German Political Elite 193The German Split Personality 194
• Impressive German Words: Sehnsucht and Streben 194Vocabulary Building 195Further Reference 195
CHAPTER 15 GERMANY: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 196
More Complex, Less Stable 196Parties and the Electorate 196
• Germany's Possible Coalitions 197 • The Shape of the GermanElectorate 198 • Unhappy on the Left: The Jusos 199
The Chancellor and the Electorate 200• Thunder on the Right: CSU 200
German Dealignment?• Impressive German Words: Weltanschauung 201
German Dealignment? 201• The "Catchall" Party 202 • Movable Mayors 203
The Bundestag and the Citizen 203The Union-Party Linkup 204
• Boring! Boring! Politics without Passion 204 • Impressive GermanWords: Spitzenverband 205
The Lander and Berlin 206German Voting Patterns 207Vocabulary Building 208Further Reference 208
CHAPTER 16 WHAT GERMANS QUARREL ABOUT 209
The End of the Miracle 209• Impressive German Words: Wirtschaftswunder 210 • Impressive GermanWords: Sozialmarkt 210 • Impressive German Words:Mitbestimmung 211 • Comparing: Who Wins the ManufacturingRace? 212
How to Merge Two Economies 212• Impressive German Words: Ladenschlussgezetz 213 • Could UnificationHave Come Gradually? 214 • How to Handle the Euro? 216
CONTENTS xi
How Much Welfare? 217• Comparing: Running Out of Germans 217
The Hood of Foreigners 218• Impressive German Words: Gastarbeiter 219 • The StasiStain 220 • Impressive German Words: Waldsterben 221
A Fourth Reich? 221Vocabulary Building 223Further Reference 223
PART TV RUSSIA 225
CHAPTER 17 RUSSIA: THE IMPACT OF THE PAST 226
The Slavic People 226• Memorable Russian Slogans: "Moscow Is the Third Rome" 227
Russian Autocracy 228Absolutism or Anarchy? 228
• State Plus Church: "Caesaropapism" 229Forced Modernization 229Westernizers and Slavophiles 230From Frustration to Revolution 230
• Premature Democrats: The Decembrists 231Marxism Comes to Russia 231
• A Russian Genius: Lenin 232• One City, Three Names 233
Curtain Raiser: The 1905 Revolution 234• Memorable Russian Slogans: "Bread, Land, Peace" 234 • Kerensky: NiceGuys Lose 235
World War I and Collapse 235• Memorable Russian Slogans: "All Power to the Soviets" 236 • Why theOctober Revolution Was in November 237
The Revolution and Civil War 237• Memorable Russian Slogans: "He Who Does Not Work, Neither Shall HeEat" 238
War Communism and NEP 238• Yet Another Tale of Two Flags 239 • Stalin: "One Death Is a Tragedy;a Million Is a Statistic" 240
Vocabulary Building 242Further Reference 242
xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 18 RUSSIA: THE KEY INSTITUTIONS 243
The Stalin System 243• Memorable Russian Slogans: "The Communist Party Is Not a Party LikeOther Parties" 244 • Government in a Fortress 245
The New System 247• The KGB 247 • 1991: The Coup That Failed 248 • Yeltsin: ACautious Reformer 250 • 2993: The Second Coup ThatFailed 251 • Russia's 1996 Presidential Elections 252 • The RussianElections of 1995: A Fragmented Party System 253
The Persistence of Pattern 254• The Once and Future KGB 254
Vocabulary Building 255Further Reference 255
CHAPTER 19 RUSSIAN POLITICAL ATTITUDES 256
The Russian Difference 256• Huntington's "Civilizational" Divide in Europe 257 • Solzhenitsyn:Russian Mysticism 258
The Mask of Legitimacy 259The Illusion of Ideology 259
• How to Build a Civil Society: The Philosophical Gap 260
The Rediscovery of Civil Society 261• How to Build a Civil Society: The Moral Gap 262
Natural Egalitarians? 262Russian Racism 263
• How to Build a Civil Society: The Economic Gap 264
Can a Democratic Political Culture Be Learned? 264• How to Build a Civil Society: The Legal Gap 265
Vocabulary Building 266Further Reference 266
CHAPTER 20 RUSSIA: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 267
Reformers versus Conservatives 267• Khrushchev: The First Reformer 268• Totalitarian versus Authoritarian 270
President versus Parliament 270• Gorbachev: "Life Punishes Those Who Delay" 271 • Centrist Reformer:Prime Minister Chernomyrdin 272 • Comparing: The Timing ofReforms 273
CONTENTS xiii
The Mafia 274• Remembering the Marshal 274
The Army 275• The Next Russian Strongman? Ex-General Lebed 276
Vocabulary Building 277Further Reference 277
CHAPTER 21 WHAT RUSSIANS QUARREL ABOUT 278
Why the Soviet Union Collapsed 278How to Reform? 279
• Economic Goods versus Economic Bads 279
The Pace and Pain of Economic Reform 280• Why Did We Fail to Anticipate? 281 • Lacking Facts, TheyTheorized 282
Recover the Lost Republics? 283
• The Terminology of Economic Reform 284 • The Horror ofChechnya 285 • Comparing: Yugoslavia: A Miniature Soviet Union? 286
A Middle Way for Socialism? 287S
• The Horror of Russian Health 287 • Comparing: Scandinavian-TypeSocialism for the Soviet Union ? 288
Which Way Russia? 288Vocabulary Building 289Further Reference 289
PARTV JAPAN 291
CHAPTER 22 JAPAN: THE IMPACT OF THE PAST 292
Japanese Feudalism 293• Comparing: The Uniqueness Trap 293 • Comparing: Japan andBritain 294
The European Jolt 294
The Forced Entry 295The 1868 Meiji Restoration 296
• The Japanese Model of Industrialization? 297
The Path to War 297The Great Pacific War 298
• The United States and Japan: Collision in the Pacific 299 • JapaneseUnderstatement: "The War Has Not Gone So Well" 300
xiv CONTENTS
Up from the Ashes 300Vocabulary Building 301Further Reference 301
CHAPTER 23 JAPAN: THE KEY INSTITUTIONS 302
The Monarchy 302The Diet 302
• Comparing: Deference to Monarchs 303 • A Woman Speaker for Japan'sDiet 304
Prime Minister 305• Fill in the Blanks: A Generic Prime Minister 307
Parties 307• Comparing: The LDP and Italy's DC 308
Japan's Electoral System 309• The 1996 Elections: A New Hybrid System in Action 310
The Ministries 311Japanese Territorial Organization 312Vocabulary Building 313Further Reference 313
CHAPTER 24 JAPANESE POLITICAL ATTITUDES 314
• Comparing: Guilt versus Shame 315 • The United States and Japan:Destined to Misunderstand? 316
The Cult of the Group 316• The United States and Japan: Managing Differences 318
Education for Grinds 318• How Would You Do on a Japanese Exam? 319 • Why Is Wa? 320
Death of a Sarariman 320• The United States and Japan: The Minamata Pieta 321
Political Suicide 322• Japanese Understatement: Sorry for the "Inconvenience" 322 • The Honorof On 323
The "New Human Race" 323• Comparing: Changing Political Cultures of Germany and Japan 324
Vocabulary Building 324Further Reference 325
CONTENTS XV
CHAPTER 25 JAPAN: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 326
Bureaucrats in Command 327• Japan's Major Interest Groups 327 • Comparing: Bureaucratic Elites inFrance and Japan 328 • The United States and Japan: An AmericanDITI? 329 • The Big Three of Japanese Scandals 330
Corruption Scandals 330• Comparing: Can "Money Politics" Be Broken? 331
No One in Charge? 332The Dangers of Multiparty Coalitions 333
• Plus qa Change: Who Is Really in Charge? 334The Hopes of Reform 335Vocabulary Building 336Further Reference 336
V
CHAPTER 26 WHAT JAPANESE QUARREL ABOUT 337
The Japanese Economic Miracle 337• Japan Destroys the German Photo Industry 338
The Secret of Japan's Success 338• Equality Works 340
From Success to Failure 341• Japanese Understatement: "Japan Has a Trade Surplus" 341 • PurchasingPower Parity 342 • Silly Excuses to Exclude Foreign Goods 343 • PoorMan's PPP: The Big Mac Index 344
Should Japanese Live Better? 344Could Japan Turn Aggressive? 345
• Repeal Article 9? 346A New Japan? 347
• The Japanese Non-Welfare State 347Vocabulary Building 348Further Reference 348
PART VI THE THIRD WORLD 350
• What Is the Third World? 352
CHAPTER 27 CHINA 353
The Impact of the Past 353A Traditional Political System 353
xvi CONTENTS
The Long Collapse 355• Confucianism: Government by Right Thinking 355 • Cyclical versusSecular Change 356
From Empire to Republic 357The Communist Triumph 358
• Mao and Guerilla War 359
The Key Institutions 360
The Soviet Parallel 360• Tandem Power: Mao and Zhou 361 • The Invisible Puppeteer: DengXiaoping 362
The Party 363The Army 363
• Tandem Power Continues 364
Chinese Political Attitudes 365
Traditional Attitudes 365• Reverence for Age 366
Nationalism 367Maoism 367
• Slogans from the Cultural Revolution 368
Concealed Anger 369• Big Lie and Little Whisper 369
Patterns of Interaction 371Cycles of Upheaval 371Radicals and Moderates 371
• The Great Leap Forward: "Twenty Years in a Day" 372 • The GreatProletarian Cultural Revolution: "Bombard the Command Post" 373
Chinese Liberal and Conservative Politics 374The Underlying Problem 375
• Anti-Western Campaigns 375 • The Tienanmen Massacre 376
What Chinese Quarrel About 377A Market Economy for China? 377
• The Trouble with Markets 378
A Middle Way for the Middle Kingdom? 379• How Many Chinese? 380
Do Markets Lead to Democracy? 381• The Hong Kong Problem 382
Dissent and Democracy 383Vocabulary Building 383Further Reference 384
CONTENTS xvii
CHAPTER 28 BRAZIL 385
The Impact of the Past 385The Portuguese Influence 385A Painless Independence 387From Empire to Republic 388The Old Republic 389
• "Order and Progress" 389 • The Addiction of Statism 390
Vargas's "New State" 390
The Rise and Fall of Jango Goulart 391
The Key Institutions 392The Military as Political Institution 392
• Brazil's Powerful Military School 393 • The President Who NeverWas 394
The Presidency 394• Comparing: Spain Turns Democratic 395
A New Democratic Constitution 396
An Emerging Party System 396• The 1994 Election: The Inflation Connection 397
A Lack of Institutions 398
Brazilian Political Attitudes 399The Easygoing Image 399
• Personalismo and Machismo 400
Brazilian Racism 400
• Comparing: Apartheid, Brazilian Style 401
Brazil's Poor: Passive or Explosive? 402• Marginals in Brazil's Favelas 402
Uneven Democratic Attitudes 403
• Latin America's Changing Leftists 404
Patterns of Interaction 405
An Elite Game 405The Mobilization-Demobilization Cycle 405
• Political Mobilization, Brazilian Style 406
The Inflation Connection 407• "Praetorianism" 407 • Brazil's Desperate Struggle against Inflation 408
The Corruption Connection 408
Resurgent Interest Groups 409• The Brazilian Political Cycle 409
The Church as Opposition 410
CONTENTS
• Chico Mendes: Another Death in the Amazon 411
What Brazilians Quarrel About 412How to Make a Second Brazilian Miracle 412
• "They Got an Awful Lot of Everything in Brazil" 412 • Headed forExtinction: Brazil's Indians 413
Brazil's State Capitalism 413
• Great Brazilian Wisecracks 414 • Great Brazilian Wisecracks 415
Growth for Whom? 415The Population Problem 416Will Brazilian Democracy Last? 417
• Crime and Punishment, Brazilian Style 417
Vocabulary Building 418
Further Reference 418
CHAPTER 29 SOUTH AFRICA 420
The Impact of the Past 420The Great Trek 421
• South Africa's Population (in Millions) 422 • Dingaan's Kraal: StillRemembered 423
The Boer War 423From Defeat to Victory 424
• Why Did Apartheid End? 425
The Key Institutions 426System in Flux 426
A Quasi-Presidential System 426• South African Might-Have-Been: The Black and Coloured Vote 427
A Bicameral Parliament 427• Nelson Mandela: A President for All South Africans 428
The Cabinet 429• Comparing: How to Reform an Unjust System? 430
The Parties 431
• A Constitutional Court for South Africa 431 • Beware the Confusion:South Africa's Two "National" Parties 432 • 2994: A New ProportionalRepresentation System in Action 433 • Home for Four MillionPeople? 434
Farewell to the Homelands 435South African Political Attitudes 435
The Africans 435The Afrikaners 436
CONTENTS xix
• From Euphoria to Dysphoria 436 • A Lost Generation of AfricanYouth 437 • Do Afrikaners Change? 438
The English Speakers 438The Browns 439
• South African Might-Have-Been: If the English Had Retained Power 439Patterns of Interaction 440
Politics within the ANC 440• Why Do Plural Societies Cohere? "Cross-Cutting Cleavages" 441
The ANC and the Whites 441• Why Do Plural Societies Cohere? "Consociational Democracy" 442
The ANC versus Inkatha 443• South Africa's Bloodshed: Whose Fault? 443 • New Player:COSATU 444
An Emerging Party System 444Harvest of Hatred 446
What South Africans Quarrel About 446How to Manage a Revolution 446
• How Much Truth Can South Africa Take? 447 • Favelas in SouthAfrica? 448
Capitalism for South Africa? 448The Brazilianization of South Africa? 449Which Way for South Africa? 450
• A Separate KwaZulu? 450 • Who Can Replace Mandela? 451Vocabulary Building 451Further Reference 452
CHAPTER 30 IRAN 453
The Impact of the Past 453The Arab Conquest 454Western Penetration 454The First Pahlavi 455
• Comparing: Ataturk and Reza Shah 456The Last Pahlavi 457
• The Big U.S. Mistake 457The Key Institutions 459
A Theocracy 459• Iran's 1997 Presidential Election 460
Iran's Executive 460Iran's Legislature 461
xx CONTENTS
• The Strange "Council of Guardians" 461Emerging Parties? 462A Partly Free System 463
Iranian Political Attitudes 463• Is Islam Anti-Modern? 464 • Is Islamic "Fundamentalism" the RightName? 466
Islam as a Political Ideology 466
Democracy and Authority 467• Are Iranians Religious Fanatics? 467 • Islamic Modernization: TheSilencing of Soroush 468
Persian Nationalism 468• Sunni and Shia 469
Patterns of Interaction 470Religion as a Political Tool 470
• Does Islam Discriminate against Women? 470
Radicals and Moderates in Iran 471• The U.S. Embassy Takeover 472 • Saudi Arabia: The NextIran? 473 • Mullahs versus Bazaaris 474
The Revolution Burns Out 475What Iranians Quarrel About 476
Which Way for Iran's Economy? 476• How Many Iranians? 477 • Open Letter to Americans: Don't Mess withIran 478
The Veiled Debate on Islam 478• Open Letter to Iranians: Don't Mess with America 479 • A Fatwa onRushdie 480
What Kind of Foreign Policy? 480Do Revolutions End Badly? 481Vocabulary Building 482Further Reference 482
CHAPTER 31 LESSONS OF NINE COUNTRIES 483
GLOSSARY 489
INDEX 497