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Discourse StudiesDiscourse Studies
hagustien@yahoo.comhagustien@yahoo.com
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DiscourseDiscourse
DefinitionDefinition
Common concern
Common concern
AbstractAbstract
Realised in communicationRealised in communication
Realised by languageRealised by language Realised by texsRealised by texs
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DiscourseDiscourse
DefinitionDefinition
L
anguage use beyond sentenceL
anguage use beyond sentence Language use in contextsLanguage use in contexts
Social practiceSocial practice
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Language ina socialLanguage ina social--semioticsemiotic
perspectiveperspective
Social semiotic as a general ideologySocial semiotic as a general ideology
As an intellectual stanceAs an intellectual stance As conceptual angle of the subjectAs conceptual angle of the subject
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SemioticsSemiotics
A general study of signsA general study of signs
A study of meanings in most general senseA study of meanings in most general sense
Linguistics is a kind of semioticsLinguistics is a kind of semiotics
Culture is a set of semiotic systems, a setCulture is a set of semiotic systems, a set
of systems of meanings, all of whichof systems of meanings, all of which
interrelate.interrelate.
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ExamplesExamples
Traffic lightsTraffic lights
ColoursColours Language (sounds, letters)Language (sounds, letters)
Interpretation of colours (salted eggs,Interpretation of colours (salted eggs,navy blue)navy blue)
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Language as socialLanguage as social
semioticsemiotic Used by a communityUsed by a community
Based on conventionBased on convention
At all levels: word, phrase, sentence,At all levels: word, phrase, sentence,texttext
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TextText
Discourse is realised by textsDiscourse is realised by texts
Communication happens in textCommunication happens in text
Text is central to discourse analysisText is central to discourse analysis
What is text?What is text?
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TEXT
CULTURE
Genre (Purpose)
Situation
Who is involved?
(Tenor)
Subject matter Channel
(Field) (Mode)
Register
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TextText
It is a semantic unit.It is a semantic unit.
Something is called a text when it isSomething is called a text when it ismeaningful.meaningful.
It is spoken and written.It is spoken and written.
It is not a phonological or aIt is not a phonological or agraphological unit.graphological unit.
It occurs in a context of situation.It occurs in a context of situation.
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Context of situationContext of situation
There are three elementsThere are three elements
Subject matter (field)Subject matter (field)
Participants involved (tenor)Participants involved (tenor)
Channel (mode)Channel (mode)
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Context of cultureContext of culture
Every culture produces text types.Every culture produces text types.
A text type is a genreA text type is a genre
Two general purposes: TransactionalTwo general purposes: Transactionaland Interpersonal genresand Interpersonal genres
Transactional: to get something doneTransactional: to get something done
Interpersonal: for differentpurposesInterpersonal: for differentpurposesof communicationof communication
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Basic English genresBasic English genres
ProcedureProcedure
DescriptiveDescriptive
NarrativeNarrative
RecountRecount
reportreport
News itemNews item
DiscussionDiscussion
ExplanationExplanation
ExpositionExposition
ReviewReview
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Text analysisText analysis
Needs linguistic analysisNeeds linguistic analysis
Interpretation is based on linguisticInterpretation is based on linguisticevidenceevidence
Text analysts need the rightknife toText analysts need the rightknife tocut the rightbreadcut the rightbread
Differentknives for differentbreadDifferentknives for differentbread
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Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis
How texts relate to contexts of situation andHow texts relate to contexts of situation and
context of culturecontext of culture
How texts are produced as a social practiceHow texts are produced as a social practice
What texts tell us about happenings, whatWhat texts tell us about happenings, what
people think, believe etc.people think, believe etc.
How texts represent ideology (powerHow texts represent ideology (power
struggle etc.)struggle etc.)
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Text & Discourse AnalysesText & Discourse Analyses
(Nunan, 1993)(Nunan, 1993) Text analysisText analysis is the study of formal linguisticis the study of formal linguistic
devices that distinguish a text from randomdevices that distinguish a text from random
sentences.sentences. Discourse analystsDiscourse analysts study these textstudy these text--formingforming
devices with reference to the purposes anddevices with reference to the purposes andfunctions for which the discourse was produced,functions for which the discourse was produced,and the context within which the discourse wasand the context within which the discourse wascreated. The ultimate goal iscreated. The ultimate goal is to show how theto show how thelinguistic elements enable language users tolinguistic elements enable language users tocommunicate.communicate.
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CommunicationCommunication
Exchange of meaningsExchange of meanings
Happens in textsHappens in texts
See the following diagram onn stratificationSee the following diagram onn stratification
and metafunctionsand metafunctions
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Ideational
Interpersonal
Textual
Discourse Semantic Level
Lexicogrammatical
Level
Phonology/
Graphology
Level
CULTURAL LEVEL
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StratificationStratification
Discourse semantic levelDiscourse semantic level
LeexicoLeexico--grammatical levelgrammatical level
Phonological / graphological levelPhonological / graphological level
All of these are related by realisationAll of these are related by realisation
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MetafunctionsMetafunctions
(Abstract Meanings)(Abstract Meanings) Ideational meaningsIdeational meanings
Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings
Textual meaningsTextual meanings
Logical meaningsLogical meanings
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IdeationalMeaningsIdeationalMeanings
Meanings aboutphenomenaMeanings aboutphenomena
About things and goings onAbout things and goings on
About circumstances surrounding theAbout circumstances surrounding thehappenings and doingshappenings and doings
Realised in wordings through Participants,Realised in wordings through Participants,
Processes and CircumstanceesProcesses and Circumstancees Centrally influenced by the field of discourseCentrally influenced by the field of discourse
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ExamplesExamples
Polar bearsPolar bears eat eat fishfish
Participant:Participant:ActorActor
Process:Process:MaterialMaterial
Participant:Participant:GoalGoal
Polar bearsPolar bears areare good huntersgood huntersParticipant:Participant:
CarrierCarrier
Process:Process:
AttributiveAttributive
Participant:Participant:
AttributeAttribute
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The MountainThe Mountain
Long ago, a great mountainLong ago, a great mountain began to rumble andbegan to rumble andshakeshake. People. People camecame from far and nearfrom far and nearto seeto see whatwhat
would happen.would happen.A great river will beA great river will be bornborn, said one., said one.
A mighty dragon willA mighty dragon willcome outcome out, said another., said another.
A god himself willA god himself willspringspring from these rocks, said afrom these rocks, said a
third.third.Finally, a small crackFinally, a small crackappearedappearedin the mountainside.in the mountainside.
And outAnd outpoppedpoppeda mouse.a mouse.
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Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings
Express a speakers attitudes andExpress a speakers attitudes and
judgementsjudgements
For acting upon and with othersFor acting upon and with others
Realised in wordings through MOOD andRealised in wordings through MOOD and
modality.modality.
Most centrally influenced by tenor ofMost centrally influenced by tenor of
discoursediscourse
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ExamplesExamples
(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)
Declarative:Declarative:
We inspect the growing plants every weekWe inspect the growing plants every week
Imperative:Imperative:
Brock, get those plants inspected right now!Brock, get those plants inspected right now!
Consider the interpersonal relations betweenConsider the interpersonal relations betweenspeakers.speakers.
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examplesexamples
Brock, do you really expect me to believeBrock, do you really expect me to believe
this crap?this crap?
Mr. Brock, Ifind your position unatenableMr. Brock, Ifind your position unatenable
Consider the degree of informality or formalityConsider the degree of informality or formality
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ExamplesExamples
Mr. Brock is aMr. Brock is a fine, upstanding employee.fine, upstanding employee.
Brock is aBrock is a lazy, incompetent foollazy, incompetent fool..
Consider theConsider the attitudinal lexisattitudinal lexis which expresswhich express
affect, the degree of like and dislikeaffect, the degree of like and dislike
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Examples: ModalityExamples: Modality
UnfortunatelyUnfortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector.
FortunatelyFortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector.
Consider theConsider the Mood AdjunctMood Adjunctwhich reveal attitude orwhich reveal attitude orjudgment.judgment.
The cropThe crop mightmightbe inspected.be inspected.
The cropThe crop shouldshouldbe inspectedbe inspected
The cropThe crop mustmustbe inspectedbe inspected
ConsiderConsidermodal operatorsmodal operators revealing the speaker certainty.revealing the speaker certainty.
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The PrayerThe Prayer
Ipray you'll be our eyesIpray you'll be our eyesAnd watch us where we goAnd watch us where we go
And help us to be wiseAnd help us to be wiseIn times when we don't knowIn times when we don't know
Let this be our prayerLet this be our prayer
As we go our wayAs we go our wayLead us to a placeLead us to a placeGuide us with your GraceGuide us with your GraceTo a place where we'll be safeTo a place where we'll be safe
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Love Changes EverythingLove Changes Everything
Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHands and faces, birds and skyHands and faces, birds and skyLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHow you live and how you dieHow you live and how you die
Love can make the summer flyLove can make the summer flyOr anight seem like alifetimeOr anight seem like alifetime
Yes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingNow I tremble at your nameNow I tremble at your nameNothing in the world will ever beNothing in the world will ever bethe samethe same
Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingDays are longer, words mean moreDays are longer, words mean moreLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingPain is deeper than beforePain is deeper than before
Love will turnyour world aroundLove will turnyour world aroundAnd that world would last foreverAnd that world would last foreverYes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingBrings you glory, brings you shameBrings you glory, brings you shameNothing in the world will ever be theNothing in the world will ever be the
samesame
Love, into the world we goLove, into the world we goPlanning future, shapingyearsPlanning future, shapingyearsLove does its acts suddenlyLove does its acts suddenly
All our wisdom disappearsAll our wisdom disappears
Love makes moves on everyoneLove makes moves on everyoneAll the rules we make are brokenAll the rules we make are broken
Yes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingLive or perish in its nameLive or perish in its nameLove willnever, never let you be theLove willnever, never let you be the
samesame
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TextualMeaningsTextualMeanings
Express the relation of language to itsExpress the relation of language to its
environment (including what has beenenvironment (including what has been
spoken or written before).spoken or written before).
Realised through patterns of Theme andRealised through patterns of Theme and
cohesion.cohesion.
Most centrally influenced by mode ofMost centrally influenced by mode ofdiscoursediscourse
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The linguistic differences between the following spoken andThe linguistic differences between the following spoken and
written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematicwritten texts below relate primarily to differences in thematic
choices and patterns of cohesion.choices and patterns of cohesion.
This is yer phone bill and you hafta go toThis is yer phone bill and you hafta go to
the Post Office to pay itthe Post Office to pay it uh, by nextuh, by next
MondayMonday thats what this box tells yathats what this box tells ya orortheyll cut yer phone off!theyll cut yer phone off!
All phone bills must be paid by the dateAll phone bills must be paid by the dateshown or service will be discontinued.shown or service will be discontinued.
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The relationship between context,The relationship between context,
meanings and wordingsmeanings and wordingsContext TextContext Text
Semantics LexicogrammarSemantics Lexicogrammar
(meanings) (wordings)(meanings) (wordings)
Field Ideational TransitivityField Ideational Transitivity(what is going on) (Processes, Participants,(what is going on) (Processes, Participants,
CircumstancesCircumstances
Tenor Interpersonal Mood andTenor Interpersonal Mood and
ModalityModality(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)
Mode Textual Theme, CohesionMode Textual Theme, Cohesion(Contextual coherence)(Contextual coherence)
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GenreGenre
It has communicative purposeIt has communicative purpose
It has generic structure (particular stages;It has generic structure (particular stages;
distinctive beginnings, middles and endsdistinctive beginnings, middles and ends
It has linguistic featuresIt has linguistic features
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ProcedureProcedure
Tujuan Komunikatif Teks:Tujuan Komunikatif Teks:
Memberi petunjuk cara melakukanMemberi petunjuk cara melakukan
sesuatu melalui serangkaian tindakansesuatu melalui serangkaian tindakanatau langkah.atau langkah.
Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks:
Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;
BahanBahan--bahan;bahan; LangkahLangkah--langkahlangkah..
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ProcedureProcedure
Ciri Kebahasaan:Ciri Kebahasaan:
pola kalimatpola kalimatimperativeimperative,, misalnyamisalnya, Cut, Dont mix,, Cut, Dont mix,
dsbdsb.. action verbsaction verbs, misalnya, misalnya turn, put, dont, mixturn, put, dont, mix, dsb., dsb.
connectivesconnectives untuk mengurutkan kegiatan,untuk mengurutkan kegiatan,
misalnyamisalnya then, while,then, while, dsbdsb..
adverbialsadverbials untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat,untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat,cara yang akurat, misalnyacara yang akurat, misalnya for five minutes, 2for five minutes, 2
centimetres from the topcentimetres from the top, dsb., dsb.
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DescriptiveDescriptive
Tujuan Komunikatif :Tujuan Komunikatif :
Mendeskripsikan ciriMendeskripsikan ciri--ciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempatciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempattertentu.tertentu.
Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks:**Pengenalan bendaPengenalan benda, orang atau sesuatu yang akan, orang atau sesuatu yang akan
dideskripsikandideskripsikan..
** DeskripsiDeskripsi:: menggambarkan cirimenggambarkan ciri--ciri benda tersebut,misalnyaciri benda tersebut,misalnyaberasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb.berasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb.Deskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atauDeskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atau
orang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsiorang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsitentang tentang My DogMy Dog. Ciri. Ciri--ciri anjing saya tersebut dapat berbedaciri anjing saya tersebut dapat berbedadengan anjing yang laindengan anjing yang lain..
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DescriptiveDescriptive
Ciri KebahasaanCiri Kebahasaan::
nounsnouns tertentu, misalnyatertentu, misalnya teacher, houseteacher, house,,mymyrabbitrabbit,, dsb.dsb.
simple present tensesimple present tense.. detailednoundetailednounphrasephrase untuk memberikanuntuk memberikan
informasi tentang subjek, misalnyainformasi tentang subjek, misalnya SheShe a sweeta sweetyoung lady.young lady.
berbagai macamberbagai macam adjectivesadjectives, yang bersifat, yang bersifatdescribing, numbering, classifying,describing, numbering, classifying, mis:mis: twotwostrong legs, twowhite fangs,strong legs, twowhite fangs, dsb.dsb.
relating verbsrelating verbs untuk memberikan informasiuntuk memberikan informasitentang subjek, misalnya,tentang subjek, misalnya, My mum is realy coolMy mum is realy cool,,It has very thick fur,It has very thick fur, dsbdsb..
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RecountRecount
Tujuan komunikatifTujuan komunikatif::
Melaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatanMelaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatan
dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.
Struktur teks:Struktur teks:
**PendahuluanPendahuluan (orientasi)(orientasi), yaitu memberikan, yaitu memberikaninformasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana daninformasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana dankapan;kapan;
** Laporan (rentetan) peristiwaLaporan (rentetan) peristiwa, kegiatan yang, kegiatan yangterjaditerjadi, yang biasanya disampaikan secara, yang biasanya disampaikan secaraberurut;berurut;
** KomentarKomentar pribadipribadidan/atau ungkapan penilaiandan/atau ungkapan penilaian(jika ada(jika ada
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RecountRecountCiri kebahasaanCiri kebahasaan::
** nounsnouns dandan pronounspronouns sebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atausebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atau
benda yang terlibat, misalnyabenda yang terlibat, misalnya DavidDavid,, the monkeythe monkey,, wewe dsbdsb..
** actionaction verbsverbs atau kata kerja tindakan, misalnyaatau kata kerja tindakan, misalnya go, sleep, rungo, sleep, run
dsbdsb..
** pastpast tensetense,, misalnyamisalnya WeWe wentwent to the zoo; She was happyto the zoo; She was happy dsb.dsb.
** conjunctionsconjunctions dandan timetime connectivesconnectives yang mengurutkan peristiwa,yang mengurutkan peristiwa,
kejadian atau kegiatan, misalnyakejadian atau kegiatan, misalnya andand,, but,but, then, after that,then, after that, dsb.dsb.
** adverbsadverbs dandan adverbadverb phrasesphrases untuk mengungkap tempat, waktuuntuk mengungkap tempat, waktudan cara, misalnyadan cara, misalnya yesterdayyesterday,, at my house, slowlyat my house, slowly dsb.dsb.
** adjectivesadjectives untuk menerangkanuntuk menerangkan nounsnouns, misalnya, misalnya beautifulbeautiful,, funny,funny,
dsbdsb
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CohesionCohesion
Resources within language that provideResources within language that provide
continuity in a text over and above thatcontinuity in a text over and above that
provided by clause and clause complexprovided by clause and clause complexstructurestructure
Cohesive relations are nonCohesive relations are non--structuralstructural
relations which work to help a text hangrelations which work to help a text hangtogether.together.
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Kinds of relationshipKinds of relationship
ReferenceReference
Lexical cohesionLexical cohesion
ConjunctionConjunction
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ReferenceReference
Refers to systems which introduce andRefers to systems which introduce and
track the identity of Participants throughtrack the identity of Participants through
texttext
Related to textual meaning, and thus toRelated to textual meaning, and thus to
modemode
Displays different patterns between spokenDisplays different patterns between spokenand written textand written text
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Two Aspects of ReferenceTwo Aspects of Reference
Systems ofreferenceSystems ofreference
RetrievalRetrieval
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System of ReferenceSystem of Reference
There are three main distinctions to make:There are three main distinctions to make:whether thewhether the
Participant is being mentioned for the firstParticipant is being mentioned for the firsttime in the text (presenting), or whether it istime in the text (presenting), or whether it isa subsequent mention (presuming)a subsequent mention (presuming)
Reference is to a generic class or toReference is to a generic class or tospecific individualspecific individual
Reference is comparative or not.Reference is comparative or not.
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Systems of ReferenceSystems of Reference
genericgeneric
specificspecific
presentingpresenting
presumingpresuming
+ comparison+ comparison-- comparisoncomparison
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RetrievalRetrieval
AnaphoraAnaphora: points the reader or listener backwards to a: points the reader or listener backwards to a
previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.
Homophora
Homophora: retrieval of identity with reference to the: retrieval of identity with reference to thecontext of culture / situation, or from within or outside thecontext of culture / situation, or from within or outside the
text. E.g.text. E.g. When Iwoke up, the sun was shiningWhen Iwoke up, the sun was shining. The sun. The sun
is a culturally shared knowledge.is a culturally shared knowledge.
Exophora:Exophora: retrieval from outside the text. E.g.retrieval from outside the text. E.g. That koalaThat koala
over there is really sleepy.over there is really sleepy. Esp. in spoken text.Esp. in spoken text.
Endophora:Endophora: Retrieval from within the text. There are twoRetrieval from within the text. There are two
types: anaphora and cataphora.types: anaphora and cataphora.
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EndophoraEndophora
Anaphora:Anaphora:
Some snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly. TheySome snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly. Theysqueeze their victim to death.squeeze their victim to death.
Cataphora:Cataphora:It was a venomousIt was a venomous oneone,, thatthatsmall green snake.small green snake.
Bridging:Bridging:We walk towards the kioskbut the windowswere boltedshut.We walk towards the kioskbut the windowswere boltedshut.
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LexicalCohesionLexicalCohesion
Refers to the relationships between and amongRefers to the relationships between and among
words in a textwords in a text
Primarily related to fieldPrimarily related to field Field tends to have specialised vocabularies andField tends to have specialised vocabularies and
tends to engage in specialised activities.tends to engage in specialised activities.
Reveals interpersonal meanings through use ofReveals interpersonal meanings through use of
attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.
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Categories of LexicalCohesionCategories of LexicalCohesion
RepetitionRepetition
SynonymySynonymy:: leave, departleave, depart
AntonymyAntonymy:: leave, arriveleave, arrive
HyponymyHyponymy (superordination):(superordination): flower,rose; roseflower,rose; rose--daffodildaffodil
MeronymyMeronymy (whole(whole--partrelation):partrelation): flower,petalsflower,petals
EquivalenceEquivalence:: the sailor was theirthe sailor was theirdaddy.daddy.
NamingNaming: Theycall their: Theycall theirpuppyFluffy.puppyFluffy. SemblanceSemblance:: Theycouldsee theirTheycouldsee theirwhite capswhite caps
lookinglikelookinglike seahorses.seahorses.
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ConjunctionConjunction
Conjunction is the semantic systemConjunction is the semantic systemwhereby speakers relate clauses inwhereby speakers relate clauses in
terms of temporal sequence,terms of temporal sequence,consequence, comparison andconsequence, comparison andaddition.addition.