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THE EFFECT OF CALCULATOR USE ON HIGH STAKES TESTING 1
The Effect of Calculator Use on High Stakes Testing in Math Students
Michelle New, Jennifer Guest, Devin Biggers, and Sylvia Hodge
University of South Carolina Aiken
EDET 780 Group Research Project
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Abstract
This study will assess the effectiveness of 10th grade students using calculators in
conjunction with a high stakes test, specifically the South Carolina High School Exit Exam, HSAP
(High School Assessment Program). According to Hembree and Dessart, calculators can prove
beneficial to overall problem solving when used in correlation with mathematics instruction.
Similarly, Clark and Dion charge that prior to integration, both teachers and students should
become trained in calculator technology. The presence and absence of various calculators
(scientific and graphing) are analyzed within this study. We hope to see a correlation between
calculator use and student scores. An extended question is to be answered as well: Does lack of
familiarity with a specific calculator negate its ability to enhance student performance?
Conclusions may be used to direct future classroom instruction and make appropriate
accommodations to state assessments.
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THE EFFECT OF CALCULATOR USE ON HIGH STAKES TESTING 3
Introduction
The fact that students tend to have higher failure rates in mathematics than in other
academic disciplines, provides the impetus for research into methods to improve skills in
mathematics calculations as well as confidence in the study of mathematics. While extensive
research is available concerning methods of improvement, including the utilization of graphing
calculators in higher level mathematics, further research is warranted. Since the 1980s, with the
publication ofA Nation at Risk, continuing through the era ofNo Child Left Behind, and still
today, standardized testing in the area of mathematics, is a high-stakes reality in American schools.
As a result of testing such as the PASS and the HSAP in South Carolina, as well as the looming
Common Core testing that will be national in scope, the need for improvements in mathematical
skills and abilities of American students has never been more pronounced. Many technological
tools exist for assistance with computational skills, but none is more affordable and accessible than
the graphing calculator.
Literature Review
The notion that K-12 and university students struggle with mathematics has long been
understood. The fact that students tend to have higher failure rates in mathematics than in other
disciplines explains the need for research into ways of helping students be more successful in
upper level mathematics. Significant research has been conducted concerning the usefulness of
graphing calculators in mathematics education throughout the past three decades. The possibility
that a simple tool such as a graphing calculator might improve understanding and successful
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computation on the part of the students provides the reasoning behind the need for research in this
area.
It may well be the case that technology does not help or hinder students in the
memorization of facts, but technology does help students to develop conceptual understanding and
problem-solving abilities, Tan cites Griffith (p. 76) (Tan, 2012, p. 1117). Similar to Griffith,
Hembree & Dessart agree that the use of calculators in concert with traditional mathematics
instruction apparently improves the average students basic skills with paper and pencil, both in
working exercises and in problem solving. Brown also indicates this in his paper when he refers
to the findings of another study that state, ...the use of calculators facilitated skill development
and students had a more positive attitude toward mathematics than students who did not use
calculators. (T. Brown; 2007; p. 109-10) Tans research involved 65 pre-university students in
Malaysia which were divided into a control and a treatment group for twelve weeks of instruction
concerning probability. At the end of the study, the experimental (treatment) group, who had been
taught utilizing graphing calculators, scored significantly higher than the control group on a
posttest of the mathematics covered throughout the course of the experiment. In a study similar to
Tans, Merriweather also used control and experimental groups. Merriweathers study, however,
focused on changes in attitude of the students about math when they were given calculators to use.
Merriweathers results found that the students...were able to solve problems with the graphing
calculator that they were not able to solve before. Her results also showed that ..76% of the
control group thought that using the graphing calculator would make math fun... (Merriweather;
1999; p. 11). Most studies have found that when given the chance to use calculators in everyday
math instruction, students seem to inherit not only a better attitude about math but also seem to
improve their level of achievement.
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According to both Clark and Dion, it is crucial that calculators be integrated into math
classrooms. Clark refers to calculators as valuable instructional tools. Clark states, however, that
students need to develop an understanding of the mathematical calculations of a topic before they
are allowed to use a calculator. Clarks idea is supported by (T. Brown 2007; p. 103) when he
states, ...teachers must first, acknowledge the significance of calculator use in students
conceptual understanding of mathematics and second, actually employ the appropriate use of
calculators in mathematics instruction. Before calculators can be integrated fully into everyday
math instruction, both teachers and students need to have both training and experience with these
technologies. One study revealed higher test scores for students of teachers who received training
about how to use calculators when delivering mathematics content to students. (Wolfe; 2010; p4)
Brown offers a fitting solution when he states, Therefore, teachers at all grade bands need to be
informed of the latest research through meaningful professional development. (T. Brown, 2007; p.
111)
In his research of the introduction of graphing calculators into three centralized
examination systems in Denmark, Australia, and the International Baccalaureate, R. Brown found
that only two out of the six mathematics examinations considered demonstrated any significant
change in the types of skills assessed in conjunction with the introduction of the graphics
calculator (R. Brown; 2010, p. 181). According to R. Brown, the graphing calculator is a
revolutionary tool in mathematics education, but its introduction will not by itself lead to a change
in the mathematics skills assessed in high stakes examinations (p. 200). Clearly further study is
necessary which delves into the changes, or lack thereof, that widespread graphing calculator usage
has brought about in terms of standardized testing.
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Currie, in a dissertation study conducted in Tennessee, found that students taught algebra
with the use of graphing calculators achieved at higher levels than students taught without the use
of graphing calculators (Currie, 2006, p. 7). An interesting finding of Curries work was that
teachers attitude about when graphing calculators should be used did not determine whether they
used the technology (p.8, citing NCLB study of 2002). This research involved Algebra 1 and
Algebra 1B students in a large urban high school in west Tennessee, and the results from the
study showed that students of average ability, as determined by their placement of Algebra 1 in
grade 9 or Algebra 1B in grade 10, who used graphing calculators in Algebra 1 did show a
significant positive difference in level of achievement when compared to students who did not use
graphing calculators , and the effect of teachers mastery orientation on their use of graphing
calculators was found to be non-significant ( p. 74).
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), in 2000, stated that
technology is an essential component in teaching mathematics; it influences the way mathematics
is taught and learned (Ye, 2009, p. 134). Since mathematics is such an important academic field
of study throughout the world, and since it is seen as a universal language, it is significant to
realize that these issues are the focus of research worldwide. Ye argued that Chinese mathematics
educators have struggled with whether to use graphing calculators in mathematics classrooms and
wondered what the vital roles of graphing calculators are in student learning and teaching
mathematics (p. 134). This study involved a collaborative project between Texas Instruments and
Chinese teachers in secondary schools in Zhejiang Province, and the participants were 400 high
school students. The Chinese teachers were hesitant to use the graphing calculators (TI 92+ for
Algebra and Geometry). Yes conclusions included that the use of graphing calculators in
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secondary mathematics teaching is conducive to the reform of evaluation systems; especially in the
way exams are constructed (p. 137).
In a meta-analysis of the effects of calculators on student attitude and achievement,
Ellington concluded that when calculators were included in instruction but not testing, the
operational skills and the ability to select the appropriate problem-solving strategies improved for
the participating students and when calculators were part of both testing and instruction, the
operational skills, computational skills, skills necessary to understand mathematical concepts, and
problem-solving skills improved for participating students (Ellington, 2003, p. 455). Clark states
in his articles that several studies have documented higher test scores for students who use
calculators regularly during mathematics instruction. Merriweather also discusses the topic of test
scores in her study. She states that, it has been shown that calculator use in the classroom
increases test scores for low and average students. (Merriweather; 1999; p. 7) Ellington found no
significant difference between scores of students who used scientific, compared with graphing
calculators, when calculators were not allowed during testing. But when calculators were an
integral part of the testing process, the results based on graphing calculator use were significantly
better than the results of basic or scientific calculators in two areas: conceptual skills and problem-
solving skills (Ellington, 2003, p. 457). Dions study included several references to SAT testing
as well. According to her study, the Educational Testing Service conducted a survey on calculator
use to discover how calculators were being used in the classroom. The results of this study showed
that allowing calculators on the SAT Mathematics tests is a reflection of what is occurring in
classrooms. (Dion; 2001; p.433 ) These results refer directly back to the discussions, studies, and
findings on implementing calculators in classroom instruction. These prove what her statement on
calculators being an integral part of the mathematics curriculum. Most standardized tests given
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today now include opportunities for the use of calculators. Calculator use on standardized tests,
according to Brown, prompted teachers to provide opportunities for students to use calculators in
classroom activities. (T. Brown 2007 p. 110) This would then give the students an advantage
when it came time to take the test.
In his review ofThe Didactical Challenge of Symbolic Calculators: Turning a
Computational Device into a Mathematical Instrument, Fey stated that there has been a
substantial amount of empirical research exploring the benefits and risks of encouraging/allowing
students to use scientific and graphing calculators, with the consistent finding that thoughtful use
of such tools tends to enhance student understanding and problem-solving ability, with no
significant diminution of learning traditional computational skills (Fey, 2006, p. 350). This
review emphasized that with the significance of technology, both graphing calculators and
computers, in contemporary mathematics classrooms, teacher training institutions must adapt their
programs to ensure that future K-12 mathematics educators are competent and comfortable in
teaching with such technologies.
Less research is available concerning the inequities among access to technology in
mathematics, both in schools and in homes. Students from certain minority populations; both in
terms of ethnicity and socioeconomic status, have less consistent access to graphing calculators
and computer technology, and the achievement gap continues to be an issue as a result. Nzukis
dissertation, which investigated African American students identity and agency in a mathematics
and graphing calculator environment stated that the major gap in the research that attempted to
examine equity issues with graphing calculators is that rather than being the fundamental problem
for investigation, the equity issues were often included as incidental and/or as an afterthought (p.
90). Nzukis study attempted to fill in this void by exploring African American students
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identities and agencies that emerge in action as they participate in social practices of learning
mathematics mediated by graphing calculators (p. 90). The case study involved both quantitative
and qualitative data collection, with study participants comprised of two high-achievers and three-
low achievers from an intermediate Algebra III classroom at a low-SES high school. According to
Nzuki, the highest level of using technology is in the role of technology as an extension of self.
Here the technology provides an extension of students mathematical abilities and becomes an
integral part of their mathematical repertoire (p. 144). Very few of the participants in the case
study felt that they had achieved the level of technology as an extension of self.
In conclusion, Nzuki argued that although there is a great deal of equity research in
mathematics education that has been conducted to highlight disparities and limited persistence
along racial lines, there has been a general lack of theorizing about race and racism and their
relationships to mathematics learning and participation (p. 221-222).
Clearly technologies such as graphing calculators are of significance in assisting students
mastery of problem solving in mathematics. Graphing calculators simplify tedious calculations,
and they allow students to contemplate higher level topics at earlier ages than in years past.
Significant research has been conducted concerning the utility of the graphing calculator to
mathematics students across the globe, yet further research is warranted. Where inequities exist
concerning access to technologies such as the graphing calculator, students are placed at a
disadvantage to their counterparts who use the technology every day. Although much data
supporting the use of graphing calculators in mathematics education exists, more extensive and
specific research is needed on this extremely important topic.
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Hypotheses
Hypotheses for Part 1:
Null Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have no impact in general on student HSAP
scores.
Research Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have an impact in general on student
HSAP scores.
Hypotheses for Part 2:
Null Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have no impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 4.0 or higher.
Research Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have an impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 4.0 or higher.
Hypotheses for Part 3:
Null Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have no impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 3.0-3.9.
Research Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have an impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 3.0-3.9.
Hypotheses for Part 4:
Null Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have no impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 2.9 or below.
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Research Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have an impact on the HSAP scores of
students with a GPA of 2.9 or below.
Research Problems
Graphing and scientific calculators have been the subjects of much discussion for many
years. Although criticized, calculators are one of the most recognized technologies for mathematics
or science based classrooms. The ubiquitous nature of these tools present many important
questions about their effectiveness and roles in the classroom. Therefore, three research questions
are posed:
1. Do calculators inhibit student performance in mathematics courses?
2. Are students dependent on calculators to perform mathematical assessments?
3. Which type of calculator (scientific or graphing) serves as the greatest asset to students on
a high stakes test?
To answer these questions, we will implement different approaches to collect essential data. We
will conduct a survey for teachers, an assessment for students, and a pre- and post-assessment
survey for the students in order to learn more about how the students are using the calculators.
The aim of this study is to determine whether the presence of calculators during the math
portion of the HSAP will impact student scores, and if so, which type proves the most beneficial.
Method
A mixed methods approach is appropriate for this research. On the qualitative side, we will
use a survey of students confidence and attitudes toward using graphing calculators with
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mathematics. As to quantitative, we will conduct a randomized comparative experiment involving
treatment and control methods for each participant, within each part.
Setting and Participants
Participants will be selected from eight high schools in the Columbia area and include 10th
grade students in their second semester. The study will include four parts. A total of 240 students
will take part in this study. Part 1 involves 120 students of varying ability levels. For parts 2,
3,and 4 students are selected based on their cumulative GPAs. A roster of all students will be
compiled. The initial group will be selected using a simple random sample design. The names
will be alphabetized and the 120 individuals will be randomly selected using a random number
generator from a TI-84+ calculator with a seed of 26. The remaining students will be categorized
based on their GPAs, creating a stratified sample. The strata (the students GPAs) will be
categorized as 4.0 and above, 3.0 - 3.9, and 2.9 and below. There will be 40 students selected to
participate in each of the remaining three parts. Again, the names will be alphabetized. Once the
remaining students are divided among the three parts, they will be selected for participation, again
using a random number generator, but this time a seed of 77 will be chosen. We will change the
seed after the first selection to ensure that the students placement on the alphabetic list is not the
automatic means of selection. When all members of each group have been selected, the
individuals within each part: 1, 2, 3, and 4, will be divided among three sub-groups.
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Design
Each group will begin the study with a pre-test survey. This survey will consist of
questions regarding students use and familiarity with calculators prior to the testing experience.
Upon completion of the pre-test survey, a practice HSAP math test will be administered with no
calculator offered. The results of the first HSAP practice test will be used to analyze the results
and discuss implications of later practice HSAP scores. Within each part (1, 2, 3, and 4) the
participants will be divided into one of three sub-groups. The sub-groups will distinguish between
the type of calculator (or lack thereof) each student is allowed to use during the given trials. Sub-
group membership will be randomly assigned. Each individual, regardless of part or sub-group,
will take three HSAP practice math tests during the experiment: one with no calculator offered,
one with a scientific calculator offered, and one with a graphing calculator offered (TI-84+). The
first sub-group will not be allowed to use a calculator during the first trial, be given a scientific
calculator during the second trial, and a graphing calculator during the third. Participants selected
for the second sub-group will use the graphing calculator during the first trial, a scientific during
the second, and no calculator will be offered during the third trial. Individuals in chosen to be in
the third sub-group will be given a scientific calculator during the first trial, the calculator will be
taken away and no calculator will be permitted during the second trial, and a graphing calculator
will be given during the third trial. The order in which the calculators are presented will vary to
ensure better assessment of the enhancements the calculator provides for student scores. If all
students progressed through the same patterns of use with the calculators, then the number of times
the student had taken the test may be a lurking variable. To eliminate this possibility, order will be
altered as stated above.
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The study will take place over the course of three days. We want to keep the trials together
to better eliminate the possibility of outside factors impacting and skewing our data. This study
will be conducted in various classrooms of the Swearingen building on the University of South
Carolinas campus. Transportation to and from the study will be provided to participants as
needed. The pre-test will be administered on the first day of the study; the practice tests will be
graded and the results recorded. The three trials will take place on the second day of the study.
Students will be allowed a fifteen minute break between the administration of the three practice
HSAP tests. It should be noted that though the technology tools allowed will vary among
members of the sub-groups, the test being taken during each trial will be consistent. By
administering the same test to each participant during a given trial we will eliminate the possibility
of a more difficult practice HSAP math test skewing our results. Additionally, students will not be
informed of their scores on the pretests or any of the three trial tests during the study. This
stipulation is put in place to ensure students enter into each test with the same base knowledge as
they did the previous test. The three practice math HSAP tests will be graded and the scores will
be recorded at the end of the second day. On the third day of the study, students will answer
questions to a written survey describing their experiences and thoughts while taking each of the
three tests. The students teachers will also be asked to participate in this portion of the study.
Teachers will take part in a similar survey discussing the use of calculators in their respective
classrooms during instruction
Data Analysis Procedures
Using an analysis of variance test (ANOVA), we should compare individuals within each
sub-group on a pretest to ensure homogeneity and academic ability.
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Results of this study will be analyzed using a matched t-test. A matched pairs study will
allow researchers to analyze a students results under various conditions. The results will be
discussed with respect to part in the study (1, 2, 3, or 4) and sub-group within the part. Aspects of
an ANOVA test will be used for the sub-groups. Sub-group results will be calculated by
determining the measures of central tendency, central variance, and the five number summary for
the statistics of each sub-group. We will use mean and median for the measures of central
tendency, standard deviation for the measure of central variance, and the minimum, maximum, and
quartile values for the five number summary (the median will have previously been established
within the measures of center). The Null and Research hypotheses for each of the parts are as
follows: Null Hypothesis The presence of calculators will have no impact on student HSAP
scores. Research hypothesis The presence of calculators will have an impact on student HSAP
scores. The stated null and research hypotheses are the basis for each part and will be tested in this
manner within the study. If the null hypothesis is rejected, we will use results from the sub-group
analysis to determine which calculator serves as the greater asset to students while taking the
HSAP. Rejection or failure to reject the null hypothesis in any part of the study will not affect the
results of another part. Each of the parts of this study is independent from the others. Therefore,
assumptions can be drawn as to the effectiveness of calculator use in high stakes testing within
specific strata, for this study - cumulative GPA.
Recommendations
Limitations to this study may exist, including length of study, calculator knowledge, geographic
constraints, and prior mathematics instruction. This study is designed to take place over the course
of three days, with all practice HSAP math tests taken on the second day. The design is in place to
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eliminate outside factors from affecting student scores; however, taking three tests in one day may
have effects as well. Students could become tired and disengaged by the end of the testing period.
A second possible limitation would be a students familiarity with calculators prior to the study.
To address this concern, we are including a pre-test survey to gather related information. Close
proximity of subjects can make performing a study much simpler. When participants are located
within a close area, they are more easily contacted and tested, but they may share certain
demographic characteristics that affect the results. Finally, a students math background will play
a huge part in his/her performance on a high stakes test. While a pre-test will be administered to
determine homogeneity among individuals taking part in the study, various techniques, instructors,
and methods of mathematics instruction may impact student scores.
Conclusion
Null and research hypotheses were established for each part of this study. Rejection of the
null hypothesis will imply that calculators do enhance student performance on high-stakes tests,
specifically the South Carolina Exit Exam, HSAP. Upon rejection of the null hypothesis students
scores can be further analyzed to determine whether more advanced calculator technology serves
as an asset or hindrance. Failure to reject the null hypothesis at any part of the study will support
the belief that calculators do not impact student scores on the test.
The use of calculators in math classrooms and on various high stakes tests is an issue of
great contention. Prior studies have addressed this topic approaching it from differing sides.
Dissenting thoughts center on the loss of basic calculation skills, the lack of training with the tool,
and the ultimate creation of a crutch. Those in favor of calculator use support thoughts of more
efficient process, creation of more integrated curriculums, and elimination of basic computational
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mistakes which can nullify any success in process. It is the author's belief that calculators do
enhance student learning when used in the correct manner. With pre-developed understanding of
fundamental math concepts and proper instruction on the use of the tool, calculators may be able to
grow student success.
The data gathered from the surveys and assessments will definitely have significant
implications about the use of calculators to increase learning outcomes. These surveys will help to
determine teachers attitudes about calculators within the classroom. Analysis of the data should
reveal if students are using calculators as a crutch to complete assignments, or if utilizing these
technologies is actually beneficial for learning outcomes. This data is essential to allow instructors
within mathematics realms to develop the most effective curriculum possible.
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References
Brown, R. (2010). Does the introduction of the graphics calculator into system-wide examinations
lead to change in the types of mathematical skills tested?Educational Studies in
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EDET J780 Group Project Graphing Calculators and High Stakes Testing
19/25
THE EFFECT OF CALCULATOR USE ON HIGH STAKES TESTING 19
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EDET J780 Group Project Graphing Calculators and High Stakes Testing
20/25
THE EFFECT OF CALCULATOR USE ON HIGH STAKES TESTING 20
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Calculators on How General Mathematics Students Naturalistically Solve Algebraic
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african american students identity and agency in a mathematics and graphing calculator
environment at a low-SES school. Syracuse University. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
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BFE 140320 DE 4 D 1 E /2? accountid =13965
Tan, C. (2012). Effects of the application of graphing calculator on students' probability
achievement. Computers & Education, 1117-1126. Retrieved on May 15, 2012 from
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_ tid =1 a 383 e 65 bbd 2 bc 610 cc 35 a 3963 e 22 ec 5& acdnat =1337608554_ e 1 ffbc 033 d 172 a 229 bfc
3 c 2173 cab 954
Wolfe, Edward W. (2010) What Impact Does Calculator Use Have On Test Results? Pearson:
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fromhttps :// www .pearsonassessments .com /NR /rdonlyres /8612144 A - D 4 A 5-4823- B 643-
57 B 087 B 83 F 12/0/ Bulletin _14.pdf
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