Post on 28-Jun-2020
transcript
ENCYCLOPEDIA OFGEOLOGY
ENCYCLOPEDIA OFGEOLOGYEDITED BY
RICHARD C. SELLEYL. ROBIN M. COCKSIAN R. PLIMER
ELSEVIERACADEMIC
PRESS
Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York OxfordParis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo
Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
© 2005 Elsevier Ltd.
The following articles are © 2005, The Natural History Museum, London, UK:
FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/HominidsPalaeontology
PALAEOZOIC/SilurianPRECAMBRIAN/Overview
Terranes, OverviewConservation of Geological Specimens
MINERALS/OlivinesMINERALS/Sulphates
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pleistocene and The Ice AgeEnvironmental Geochemistry
Biological Radiations and SpeciationPALAEOZOIC/Ordovician
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/EoceneTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Paleocene
FOSSIL PLANTS/AngiospermsFOSSIL PLANTS/Gymnosperms
BiozonesMESOZOIC/Cretaceous
MESOZOIC/End Cretaceous ExtinctionsStratigraphical Principles
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Molluscs OverviewFOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Trilobites
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/EchinoidsTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pliocene
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/BryozoansMINERALS/Feldspathoids
Russia
The following article is a US Government work in the public domain and not subject to copyright:
NORTH AMERICA/Atlantic Margin
"Earth from Space" endpaper figure reproduced with permission from Reto Stockli, Nazmi El Saleous,and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen and NASA GSFC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Rights Department in Oxford, UK:phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mailpermissions@elsevier.com.
Requests may also be completed on-line via the homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions).
First edition 2005
Library of Congress Control Number: 2004104445
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-12-636380-3 (set)
This book is printed on acid-free paperPrinted and bound in Spain
EDITORS v
EDITORS
Richard C. SelleyImperial College
London, UK
L. Robin M. CocksNatural History Museum
London, UK
Ian R. PlimerUniversity of Melbourne
Melbourne, VAAustralia
CONSULTANT EDITOR
Joe McCallCirencester
Gloucestershire, UK
Editors
vi EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Editorial Advisory Board
Jaroslav Aichler Georg Hoinkes
Czech Geological SurveyJesenık, Czech Republic
Andrew R ArmourR A Howie
Revus Energy A/SNorway
John Collinson Shunsho Ishihara
Delos, BeechStaffordshire, UK
Alexander M Davis Gilbert Kelling
Infoscape Solutions Ltd.Guildford, UK
Peter Doyle Ken Macdonald
University College London
London, UK
Wolfgang FrankeNorman MacLeod
Institut fur Geowissenschaften
Giessen, Germany
Yves FuchsStuart Marsh
Joe McCall
Universite Marne la Valle
France
Paul Garrard
David R Oldroyd
Formerly Imperial CollegeLondon, UK
R O Greiling
Rong Jia-yu
Universitat HeidelbergHeidelberg, Germany
Gwendy Hall
Mike Rosenbaum
Natural Resources CanadaOttawa, ON, Canada
Robert D Hatcher, Jr. Peter Styles
University of TennesseeKnoxville, TN, USA
Universitat Graz
Universitatplatz 2
Graz, Austria
Royal Holloway, London University
London, UK
Geological Survey of Japan
Tsukuba, Japan
Keele University
Keele, UK
University of California Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, CA, USA
The Natural History Museum
London, UK
British Geological Survey
Nottingham, UK
Cirencester, Gloucestershire, UK
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology
Nanjing, China
Twickenham, UK
Keele University
Keele, UK
Hans D Sues S H White
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD vii
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
John VeeversMacquarie University
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Universiteit Utrecht
Utrecht, The Netherlands
FOREWORD ix
Foreword
Few areas of science can have changed as fast as geology has in the past forty years. In the first half of the lastandsics,arthwelle inrealiclesanyno
torsat isandaved in
jectoutuchandfinesionll beare
nziences
, UK
century geologists were divided, often bitterly, between the drifters and those who believed that the Earthits continents were static. Neither side of this debate foresaw that the application of methods from phychemistry and mathematics to these speculations would revolutionize the study of all aspects of the ESciences, and would lead to accurate and detailed reconstructions of world geography at former times, asas to an understanding of the origin of the forces that maintain the continental movements. This changworld-view is no longer controversial, and is now embedded in every aspect of the Earth Sciences. It is apleasure to see this change, which has revitalized so many classic areas of research, reflected in the artof this encyclopedia. Particularly affected are the articles on large-scale Earth processes, which discuss mof the new geological ideas that have come from geophysics and geochemistry. Forty years ago we hadunderstanding of these topics, which are fundamental to so many aspects of the Earth Sciences. The edihave decided, and in my view quite rightly, not to include detailed discussion of the present technology thused to make geophysical and geochemical measurements. Such instrumental aspects are changing rapidlybecome dated very quickly. They can easily be found in more technical publications. Instead the editors hconcentrated on the influence such studies have had on our understanding of the Earth and its evolution, anso doing have produced an excellent and accessible account of what is now known.
Any encyclopedia has to satisfy a wide variety of users, and in particular those who know that some sublike sedimentation or mineral exploration is part of geology, and go to an encyclopedia of geology to findmore. The editors have made a very thorough attempt to satisfy such users, and have included sections on sunexpected geological topics as the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, the geology of Jupiter, Saturn,their moons, aggregates, and creationism. I congratulate the editors and authors for producing such asummary of our present knowledge, and am particularly pleased that they intend to produce an online verof the encyclopedia. Though I have become addicted to using the Internet as my general encyclopedia, I widelighted to be able to access something concerned with my own field that is as organized and scholarly asthese volumes.
Dan McKeRoyal Society Professor of Earth Scie
Cambridge University
INTRODUCTION xi
Introduction
Civilization occurs by geological consent subject to change without notice....
thlylogyicaleenthe
now
d toare
tem,therandone,rged
picsomeandarth
bee is,ho-andy ofard,ardrse,ape. Tooss-. No
the
theond
lleycks
mer004
Will Durant (1885 1981)
Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham from 1333 to 1345, divided all knowledge into ‘Geologia’, earknowledge, and ‘Theologia’, heavenly knowledge. By the beginning of the last century, however, Geowas generally understood to be restricted to the study of rocks: according to the old dictum of the GeologSurvey of Great Britain ‘If you can hit it with a hammer, then it’s geology.’ Subsequently geology has bsubsumed into Earth Science. This includes not only the study of rocks (the lithosphere), but alsoatmosphere and hydrosphere and their relationship with the biosphere. Presently these relationshipsform a nexus in Earth System Science.
The ‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ is what it says on the cover. What appealed to us when first approacheedit this work by Academic Press was a request that the encyclopedia should be rock-based. Readersreferred to the companion volumes, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Encyclopedia of the Solar SysEncyclopedia of Soils in the Environment and Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences for knowledge on the obranches of Earth Science. Nonetheless we have extended our brief to include articles on the other planetsrocky detritus of our solar system, leaving others to argue, as no doubt Bishop Richard would have dwhere the boundaries of earthly and heavenly knowledge might be. (His Grace would probably have chathe editors of the Encyclopedia of the Solar System with heresy.)
One of the first, and most difficult, tasks of editing this encyclopedia was to decide, not only which tomerited articles, but also how these articles should be grouped to facilitate the reader. This is easy for sbranches of geology, but difficult for others. It is relatively easy to logically arrange articles on mineralogypalaeontology, since they are defined by their chemistry and evolutionary biology. Articles that describe Ehistory may be conveniently arranged in a chronological order, and articles on regional geology maypresented geographically. Other topics present problems, particularly in the area of sedimentology. Therfor example, a range of inter-related topics associated with deserts. This area could be described geomorplogically, and in terms of the aeolian and aqueous processes of deserts, aeolian sedimentary structures,aeolian deposits. All of these aspects of deserts deserve mention, but there is no obvious logical waarranging the discrete topics into articles. To help us in this task we relied heavily on our editorial bowhose individual members had more specialized knowledge of their field than we. To the Editorial BoMembers, authors and anonymous referees of each article we give heartfelt thanks. We were also, of couconstrained by the willingness of expert authorities to contribute articles. To some degree therefore, the shof the encylopedia owes as much to the enthusiasm of experts to write for us, as for our ‘wish list’ of articlesfacilitate readers finding their way around the Encyclopedia of Geology great care has been taken in crreferencing within and between articles, in providing ‘See Also’ lists at the end of articles, and in the indexdoubt it will be easier for readers to navigate around the online version of the work, than to manipulateseveral hard copy volumes.
As geological knowledge expands there is always more to learn and understand. While preparing‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ we have ourselves learned a great deal about geology, both within and beyour own specialties. We invite you to read this encyclopedia and join us in the field trip of a lifetime.
Richard C. SeL. Robin M. Co
Ian R. Pli1 August 2
References to related encyclopedia published by Elsevier, Academic Press:
Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 1998Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2002Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xiii
Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia
Structure of the EncyclopediaThe material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order. Most entries consist ofseveral articles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry.Some entries comprise a single article.
To help you realize the full potential of the material in the Encyclopedia we have provided three features tohelp you find the topic of your choice: a Contents List, Cross-References and an Index.
1. Contents ListYour first point of reference will probably be the contents list. The complete contents lists, which appears at thefront of each volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry. On theopening page of an entry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry areimmediately available.
Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as yourguide. To assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates thecurrent entry and the current article within that entry.
You will find 'dummy entries' where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped togetherrelated topics. Dummy entries appear in both the contents lists and the body of the text.
Example
If you were attempting to locate material on erosional sedimentary structures via the contents list:
EROSION see SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Fluxes and Budgets; Aeolian Processes; ErosionalSedimentary Structures.
The dummy entry directs you to the Erosional Sedimentary Structures article, in the SEDIMENTARYPROCESSES entry. At the appropriate location in the contents list, the page numbers for articles underSedimentary Processes are given.
If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Erosion then thefollowing information would be provided in the dummy entry:
EROSION
See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian Processes; Fluxes andBudgets
xiv GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
Alternatively, if you were looking up Sedimentary Processes the following information would be provided:
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES
Contents
Erosional Sedimentary StructuresDepositional Sedimentary StructuresPost-Depositional Sedimentary StructuresAeolian ProcessesCatastrophic FloodsDeep Water Processes and DepositsFluvial GeomorphologyGlaciersKarst and PalaeokarstLandslidesParticle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity ProcessesDeposition from SuspensionFluxes and Budgets
2. Cross-ReferencesAll of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced.
The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions. For example, atthe end of the PRECAM BRIAN: Overview article, cross-references are used:
i. To indicate if a topic is discussed in greater detail elsewhere.
Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic Biosediments andBiofilms Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science.Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America:Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran, Russia, SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.
Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science. Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacdran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.
ii. To draw the reader's attention to parrallel discussions in other articles.
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xv
iii. To indicate material that broadens the discussion.
Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Europe: East European Graton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields.
3. IndexThe index will provide you with the page number where the material is located, and the index entriesdifferentiate between material that is a whole article, is part of an article or is data presented in a figure ortable. Detailed notes are provided on the opening page of the index.
4. ContributorsA full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume.
Earth Syatem Science.Gondwantand and Gendwana.
Terranes, Overview.
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Contributors
Abart, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Aldridge, R JUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Al-Jallal, I ASandroses Est. for Geological, GeophysicalPetroleum Engineering Consultancy and PetroleumServices, Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Alkmim, F FUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
Allen, P MBingham, Nottingham, UK
Allwood, A CMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Al-Sharhan, A SUnited Arab Emirates University, AI-Ain,United Arab Emirates
Anderson, L INational Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK
Arndt, N TLCEA, Grenoble, France
Arnott, ROxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford, UK
Asimow, P DCalifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
Atkinson, JCity University, London, UK
Bacon, MPetro-Canada, London, UK
Bailey, JAnglo-Australian Observatory and Australian Centre forAstrobiology, Sydney, Australia
Bani, PInstitut de la Recherche pour le Développement,Noumea, New Caledonia
Bell, F GBritish Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK
Bell, KCarleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Best, JUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Birch, W DMuseum Victoria, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Bird, J FImperial College London, London, UK
Black, PAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
Bleeker, WGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Bogdanova, S VLund University, Lund, Sweden
Bommer, J JImperial College London, London, UK
Boore, D MUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Bosence, D W JRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
Boulanger, R WUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA
Braga, J CUniversity of Granada, Granada, Spain
Branagan, D FUniversity of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Brasier, M DUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Brewer, P AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Bridge, MUniversity College London, London, UK
Brown, DInstitute de Ciencias de la Tierra 'Jaume Almera'CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
Brown, A JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Brown, R JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Bucher, KUniversity of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Burns, S FPortland State University, Portland, OR, USA
Byford, EBroken Hill, NSW, Australia
Calder, E SOpen University, Milton Keynes, UK
Cameron, E MEion Cameron Geochemical Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada
Carbotte, S MColumbia University, New York, NY, USA
Carminati, EUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Chamberlain, S AMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Charles, J AFormerly Building Research EstablishmentHertfordshire, UK
Chiappe, L MNatural History Museum of Los Angeles CountyLos Angeles, CA, USA
Clack, J AUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Clayton, CEardiston, Tenbury Wells, UK
Clayton, GTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Cocks, L R MThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Coffin, M FUniversity of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Collinson, JJohn Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK
Comerford, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Condie, K CNew Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, USA
Cornford, CIntegrated Geochemical Interpretation Ltd, Bideford, UK
Cornish, LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Cosgrove, J WImperial College London, London, UK
Coxon, PTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Cressey, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Cribb, S JCarraig Associates, Inverness, UK
Cronan, D SImperial College London, London, UK
Currant, AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Davies, HUniversity of Papua New Guinea, Port MoresbyPapua New Guinea
Davis, G RImperial College London, London, UK
DeCarli, P SSRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Dewey, J FUniversity of California DavisDavis, CA, USA, and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Doglioni, CUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Doming, K JUniversity of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Dott, Jr R HUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl, USA
Doyle, PUniversity College London, London, UK
Dubbin, W EThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Dyke, G JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Echtler, HGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Eden, M AGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK
Eide, E AGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway
Eldholm, OUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Elliott, D KNorthern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
Elliott, TUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Eriksen, A SZetica, Witney, UK
Payers, S RUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
Feenstra, AGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Felix, MUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Figueras, DBFI, Houston, TX, USA
Fookes, P GWinchester, UK
Forey, P LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Fortey, R AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Foster, D AUniversity of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Frýda, JCzech Geological Survey, Prague, Czech Republic
Franke, WJohann Wolfgang Goethe-UniversitatFrankfurt am Main, Germany
Franz, GTechnische Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany
French, W JGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK
Fritscher, BMunich University, Munich, Germany
Frostick, LUniversity of Hull, Hull, UK
Fuchs, YUniversité Marne la Vallée, Marne la Vallée, France
Gabbott, S EUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Garaebiti, EDepartment of Geology and Mines, Port Vila, Vanuatu
Garetsky, R GInstitute of Geological Sciences, Minsk, Belarus
Garrard, PImperial College London, London, UK
Gascoyne, J KZetica, Witney, UK
Gee, D GUniversity of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
Geshi, NGeological Survey of Japan, Ibaraki, Japan
Giese, PFreie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Giles, D PUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Glasser, N FUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Gluyas, JAcorn Oil and Gas Ltd., Staines, UK
Gorbatschev, RLund University, Lund, Sweden
Gordon, J EScottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh, UK
Gradstein, F MUniversity of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Gray, D RUniversity of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Greenwood, J RNottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
Grieve, RAFNatural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Griffiths, J SUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
Hambrey, M JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Hancock, J M†
Formerly Imperial College London, London, UK
Hansen, J MDanish Research Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark
Harff, JBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemunde, Rostock,Germany†Deceased
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Harper, DATGeologisk Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark
Harper, E MUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Harrison, JPImperial College London, London, UK
Hatcher, Jr RDUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
Hatheway, A WRolla, MO and Big Arm, MT, USA
Hauzenberger, C AUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria
Hawkins, A BCharlotte House, Bristol, UK
Haymon, R MUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA
He GuoqiPeking University, Beijing, China
Head, J WBrown University, Providence, Rl, USA
Heim, N AUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Helvaci, CDokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Izmir, Turkey
Hendriks, B W HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway
Henk, AUniversität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Herries Davies, G LUniversity of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Hey, R NUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
Hoinkes, GUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria
Hooker, J JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Home, D JUniversity of London, London, UK
Hovland, MStatoil, Stavanger, Norway
Howell, JUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Howie, R ARoyal Holloway, University of London, London, UK
Hudson-Edwards, KUniversity of London, London, UK
Huggett, J MPetroclays, Ashtead, UK and The Natural HistoryMuseum, London, UK
Hughes, N CUniversity of California, Riverside, CA, USA
Hutchinson, D RUS Geological Survey, Woods Hole, MA, USA
Idriss, I MUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA
Ineson, J RGeological Survey of Denmark and GreenlandGeocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Ivanov, M ARussian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Jäger, K DMartin Luther University, Halle, Germany
Jarzembowski, E AUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK and MaidstoneMuseum and Bentlif Art Gallery, Maidstone, UK
Jones, BUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Jones, G LConodate Geology, Dublin, Ireland
Joyner, LCardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Kaminski, M AUniversity College London, London, UK
Kay, S MCornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Kemp, A I SUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK
Kendall, A CUniversity of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Kenrick, PThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Kogiso, TJapan Marine Science and Technology Center,Yokosuka, Japan
Krings, MBayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie undGeologic, Geo-Bio Center, Munich, Germany
Lancaster, NDesert Research Institute, Reno, NV, and United StatesGeological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
Lang,K RTufts University, Medford, MA, USA
Laurent, GBrest, France
Lee, E MYork, UK
Lemke, WBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemünde, RostockGermany
Lesher, C MLaurentian University, ON, Canada
Lewin, JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Liu, J GImperial College London, London, UK
Long,J AThe Western Australian Museum, PerthWA, Australia
Loock, J CUniversity of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
Lowell, R PGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Lucas, S GNew Mexico Museum of Natural HistoryAlbuquerque, NM, USA
Liming, SUniversity of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
Luo, Z-XCarnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA, USA
Macdonald, K CUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA
Machel, H GUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
MacLeod, NThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Maltman, AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Martill, D MUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Martins-Neto, M AUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
Marvin, U BHarvard-Smithsonian Center for AstrophysicsCambridge, MA, USA
Mason, P JHME Partnership, Romford, UK
Massonne, H-JUniversität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Matte, PUniversity of Montpellier II, Montpellier, France
Mayor, APrinceton, USA
McCaffrey, WUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK
McCall, G J HCirencester, Gloucester, UK
McCave, I NUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
McGhee, G RRutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
McKibben, M AUniversity of California, CA, USA
McLaughlin, Jr P PDelaware Geological Society, Newark, DE, USA
McManus, JUniversity of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK
McMenamin, MASMount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USA
Merriam, D FUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Metcalfe, IUniversity of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
Milke, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Milner, A RBirkbeck College, London, UK
Mojzsis, S JUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
Monger, J W HGeological Survey of Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canadaand Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
Moore, PSelsey, UK
Morris, N JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Mortimer, NInstitute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, DunedinNew Zealand
Mountney, N PKeele University, Keele, UK
Mpodozis, CSIPETROL SA, Santiago, Chile
Mungall, J EUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Myrow, PColorado College, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Naish, DUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Nickel, E HCSIRO Exploration and Mining, Wembley, WA, Australia
Nielsen, K CThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
Nikishin, A MLomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Nokleberg, W JUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Norbury, DCL Associates, Wokingham, UK
O'Brien, P JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Ogg, J GPurdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
Oldershaw, CSt. Albans, UK
Oldroyd, D RUniversity of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Oneacre, J WBFI, Houston, TX, USA
Orchard, M JGeological Survey of CanadaVancouver, BC, Canada
Orr, P JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Owen, A WUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Pälike, HStockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Page, K NUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
Paris, FUniversity of Rennes 1, Rennes, France
Parker, J RFormerly Shell EP International, London, UK
Pfiffner, O AUniversity of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Piper, D J WGeological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, NS, Canada
Price, R AQueens University Kingston, ON, Canada
Prothero, D ROccidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Puche-Riart, OPolytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Pye, KRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
Rahn, P HSouth Dakota School of Mines and TechnologyRapid City, SD, USA
Ramos, V AUniversidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Rankin, A HKingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, UK
Rebesco, MIstituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di GeofisicaSperimentale (OGS), Italy
Reedman, A JMapperley, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Reisz, R RUniversity of Toronto at MississaugaMississauga, ON, Canada
Retallack, G JUniversity of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
Rickards, R BUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Riding, RCardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Rigby, J KBrigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
Rigby, SUniversity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Rodda, PMineral Resources Department, Suva, Fiji
Rona, P ARutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Rose, E P FRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
Rosenbaum, M STwickenham, UK
Rothwell, R GSouthampton Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Roy, A BPresidency College, Kolkata, India
Rushton, A W AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Russell, A JUniversity of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle uponTyne, UK
Schmid, RETH-centre, Zurich, Switzerland
Scott, ENational Center for Science EducationBerkeley, CA, USA
Scon, A CRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
Scrutton, C TFormerly University of Durham, Durham, UK
Searle, MUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Searle, R CUniversity of Durham, Durham, UK
Seibold, IUniversity Library, Freiburg, Germany
Selley, R CImperial College London, London, UK
Sellwood, B WUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK
Shields, G AJames Cook University, Townsville, OLD, Australia
Simms, M JUlster Museum, Belfast, UK
Slipper, I JUniversity of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK
Smallwood, J RAmerada Hess pic, London, UK
Smith, A BThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Smith, IAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
Snoke, A WUniversity of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Soligo, CThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Stein, SNorthwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Steinberger, BJapan Marine Science and Technology CenterYokosuka, Japan
Stemmerik, LGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland,Geocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Stern, R JThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
Stewart, IUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
Storey, B CUniversity of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Storrs, G WCincinnati Museum Center, Museum of Natural Historyand Science, Cincinnati, OH, USA
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Strachan, R AUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Suetsugu, DJapan Marine Science and Technology Center, YokosukaJapan
Surlyk, FUniversity of Copenhagen, Geocenter Copenhagen,Copenhagen, Denmark
Tait, JLudwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
Talbot, M RUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Taylor, P DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Taylor, T NUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Taylor, W E GUniversity of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK
Tazawa, JNiigata University, Niigata, Japan
Theodor, J MIllinois State Museum, Springfield, IL, USA
Timmerman, M JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Tollo, R PGeorge Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
Torsvik, T HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway
Trendall, ACurtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
Trewin, N HUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
Turner, A KColorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA
Twitchett, R JUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
Tyler, I MGeological Survey of Western AustraliaEast Perth, WA, Australia
Valdes, P JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK
van Geuns, L CClingendael International Energy ProgrammeThe Hague, The Netherlands
van Staal, C RGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Vanecek, MCharles University Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Vaughan,D JUniversity of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Veevers, J JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Verniers, JUniversity of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
Wadge, GUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK
Walter, M RMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Wang, HChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Ware, N GAustralian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Warke, P AQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
Weber, K JTechnical University, Delft, The Netherlands
Welch, M DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Westbrook, G KUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Westermann, G E GMcMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
Whalley, W BQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
White, N CBrisbane, OLD, Australia
White, S MUniversity of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Wignall, P BUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Williams, P AUniversity of Western Sydney, Parramata, Australia
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Wise, W SUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA
Worden, R HUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Wyatt, A RSidmouth, UK
Xiao, SVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, VA, USA
Yakubchuk, A SThe Natural History Museum, London, UK
Yates, A MUniversity of the Witwatersrand, JohannesburgSouth Africa
Zhang ShihongChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Ziegler, P AUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
CONTENTS xxvii
Contents
Volume 1
AFRICAPan-African Orogeny A Kröner, R J SternNorth African Phanerozoic S LüningRift Valley L Frostick
AGGREGATES M A Eden, W J French
ALPS See EUROPE: The Alps
ANALYTICAL METHODSFission Track Analysis B W H HendriksGeochemical Analysis (Including X-ray) R H WardenGeochronological Techniques E A EideGravity / R SmallwoodMineral Analysis N G Ware
ANDES S M Kay, C Mpodozis, V A Ramos
ANTARCTIC B C Storey
ARABIA AND THE GULF / A Al-Jallal, A S Al-Sharhan
ARGENTINA VA Ramos
ASIACentral S G LucasSouth-East / Metcalfe
ASTEROIDS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust
ATMOSPHERE EVOLUTION S J Mojzsis
AUSTRALIAProterozoic / M TylerPhanerozoic J J VeeversTasman Orogenic Belt D R Gray, D A Foster
B
BIBLICAL GEOLOGY E Byford
BIODIVERSITY A W Owen
BIOLOGICAL RADIATIONS AND SPECIATION P L Forey
BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS M R Walter, A C Allwood
BIOZONES N MacLeod
BRAZIL F F Alkmim, M A Martins-Neto
BUILDING STONE A W Hatheway
11226
34
43547792
107
118
132
140
153
164169
197
208222237
253
259
266
279
294
306
328
A
xxviii CONTENTS
CALEDONIDE OROGENY See EUROPE: Caledonides Britain and Ireland; ScandinavianCaledonides (with Greenland)
CARBON CYCLE G A Shields 335
CHINA AND MONGOLIA H Wang, Shihong Zhang, Guoqi He 345
CLAY MINERALS / M Huggett 358
CLAYS, ECONOMIC USES Y Fuchs 366
COCCOLITHS See CALCAREOUS ALGAE
COLONIAL SURVEYS A J Reedman 370
COMETS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust
CONSERVATION OF GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS L Cornish, G Comerford 373
CREATIONISM E Scott 381
DELTAS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deltas
DENDROCHRONOLOGY M Bridge 387
DESERTS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deserts
DIAGENESIS, OVERVIEW R C Selley 393
DINOSAURS See FOSSIL VERTEBRATES: Dinosaurs
EARTHMantle GJH McCall 397Crust GJHMcCall 403Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles) H Palike 410
EARTH STRUCTURE AND ORIGINS GJH McCall 421
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE R C Selley 430
EARTHQUAKES See ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Aspects of Earthquakes;TECTONICS: Earthquakes
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY G R Davis 434
ENGINEERING GEOLOGYOverview M S Rosenbaum 444Codes of Practice D Nor bury Aspects of Earthquakes A W Hatheway 456Geological Maps / S GriffithsGeomorphology £ M Lee, J S Griffiths, P G Fookes 474Geophysics / K Gascoyne, A S Eriksen 482Seismology J J Bommer, D M Boore 499Natural and Anthropogenic Geohazards G J H McCall 515Liquefaction / F Bird, R W Boulanger, IM Idriss 525Made Ground / A Charles 535
c
D
E
448
463
CONTENTS xxix
Problematic Rocks F G Bell 543Problematic Soils F G Bell 554Rock Properties and Their Assessment F G Bell 566Site and Ground Investigation / R Greenwood 580
Volume 2
ENGINEERING GEOLOGYSite Classification A W Hatheway 1Subsidence A B Hawkins 9Ground Water Monitoring at Solid Waste Landfills / W Oneacre, D Figueras 14
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY W E Dubbin 21
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY P Doyle 25
EROSION See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; AeolianProcesses; Fluxes and Budgets
EUROPEEast European Craton R G Garetsky, S V Bogdanova, R Gorbatschev 34Timanides of Northern Russia D G Gee 49Caledonides of Britain and Ireland R A Strachan , J F Dewey 56Scandinavian Caledonides (with Greenland) D G Gee 64Variscan Orogeny W Franke, P Matte, J Tait 75The Urals D Brown, H Echtler 86Permian Basins A Henk, M J Timmerman 95Permian to Recent Evolution PA Ziegler 102The Alps O AP fiffnerMediterranean Tectonics £ Carminati, C Doglioni 135
160
FAKE FOSSILS D M Martill 169
FAMOUS GEOLOGISTSAgassiz D R Oldroyd 174Cuvier G Laurent 179Darwin D R Oldroyd 184Du Toit / C Loock, D F Branagan 188Hall R H Dott, JrHutton D R Oldroyd 200Lyell D R Oldroyd 206Murchison D R Oldroyd 210Sedgwick D R Oldroyd 216Smith D R Oldroyd 221Steno / M Hansen 226Suess B Fritscher 233Walther I Seibold 242Wegener B Fritscher 246
FLUID INCLUSIONS A H Rankin 253
F
194
Holocent W Lemke, J HarffA 147
160EVOLUTION S Rigby, E MEharper
169FAKEFOSSILS D I Martill
125