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Jan W. Gooch, Ph.D. (Ed.)
EncyclopedicDictionaryof Polymers
Second Edition
With 1160 Figures and 73 Tables
EditorJan W. Gooch2020 Howell Mill RoadC227Atlanta, GA 30318USA
ISBN 978-1-4419-6246-1DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under e-ISBN 978-1-4419-6247-8 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4419-6248-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010938143
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Acknowledgements
The editor wishes to express his gratitude to all individuals who made available their time and resources for the
preparation of this book: James W. Larsen (Georgia Institute of Technology), for his innovations, scientific knowledge
and computer programming expertise that were invaluable for the preparation of the Interactive Polymer Technology
Programs that accompany this book; Judith Wiesman (graphics artist), for the many graphical presentations that assist
the reader for interpreting the many complex entries in this publication; Kenneth Howell (Springer, New York), for his
continued support for polymer science and engineering publications; and Daniel Quinones and LydiaMueller (Springer,
Heidelberg) for supporting the printed book and making available the electronic version and accompanying electronic
interactive programs that are important to the scientific and engineering readers.
Preface
The second edition of Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers provides 40% more entries and information for the reader.
A Polymers Properties section has been added to provide quick reference for thermal properties, crystallinity, density,
solubility parameters, infrared and nuclear magnetic spectra. Interactive Polymer Technology is available in the
electronic version, and provides templates for the user to insert values and instantly calculate unknowns for equations
and hundreds of other polymer science and engineering relationships. The editor offers scientists, engineers, academia
and others interested in adhesives, coatings, elastomers, inks, plastics and textiles a valuable communication tool
within this book. In addition, the more recent innovations and biocompatible polymers and adhesives products have
necessitated inclusion into any lexicon that addresses polymeric materials. Communication among scientific and
engineering personnel has always been of critical importance, and as in any technical field, the terms and descriptions
of materials and processes lag the availability of a manual or handbook that would benefit individuals working
and studying in scientific and engineering disciplines. There is often a challenge when conveying an idea from one
individual to another due to its complexity, and sometimes even the pronunciation of a word is different not only in
different countries, but in industries. Colloquialisms and trivial terms that find their way into technical language for
materials and products tend to create a communications fog, thus unacceptable in today’s global markets and technical
communities.
The editor wishes to make a distinction between this book and traditional dictionaries, which provide a word and
definition. The present book provides for each term a complete expression, chemical structures and mathematic
expression where applicable, phonetic pronunciation, etymology, translations into German, French and Spanish, and
related figures if appropriate. This is a complete book of terminology never before attempted or published.
The information for each chemical entry is given as it is relevant to polymeric materials. Individual chemical species
(e.g., ethanol) were taken from he CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2004 Version, the Merck Index and other
reference materials. The reader may refer to these references for additional physical properties and written chemical
formulae. Extensive use was made of ChemDraw®, CambridgeSoft Corporation, for naming and drawing chemical
structures (conversion of structure to name and vice versa) which are included with each chemical entry where possible.
Special attention was given to the IUPAC name that is often given with the common name for the convenience of the
reader.
The editor assembled notes over a combined career in the chemical industries and academic institutions regarding
technical communication among numerous colleagues and helpful acquaintances concerning expressions and associated
anomalies. Presently, multiple methods of nomenclature are employed to describe identical chemical compounds by
common and IUPAC names (eg. acetone and 2-propanone) because the old systems (19th century European and trivial)
methods of nomenclature exists with the modern International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and the conflicts
between them are not likely to relent in the near future including the weights andmeasures systems because some nations
are reluctant to convert from English to metric and, and more recently, the International Systems of Units (SI).
Conversion tables for converting other systems to the SI units are included in this book for this purpose. In addition,
there are always the differences in verbal pronunciation, but the reasons not acceptable to prevent cogent communication
between people sharing common interests.
In consideration of the many challenges confronting the reader who must economize time investment, the structure
of this book is optimized with regard the convenience of the reader as follows:
• Comprehensive table of contents
• Abbreviations and symbols
• Mathematics signs
• English, Greek, Latin and Russian alphabets
• Pronunciation/phonetic symbols
• Main body of terms with entry term in English, French German and Italian
• Conversion factors
viii Preface
• Microbiology nomenclature and terminology
• References
The editor acknowledges the utilization of many international sources of information including journals, books,
dictionaries, communications, and conversations with people experienced in materials, polymer science and engineer-
ing. A comprehensive reference section contains all of the sources of information used in this publication. Pronunciation,
etymological, cross-reference and related information is presented in the style of the 11th Edition of the Meriam-Webster
Dictionary, where known, for each term. The spelling for each term is presented in German, French, and Spanish where
translation is possible. Each term in this book includes the following useful information:
• Spelling (in bold face) of each term and alternative spellings where more than one derivation is commonly used
• Phonetic spelling \-\ using internationally published phonetic symbols, and this is the first book that includes
phonetic pronunciation information missing in technical dictionaries that allows the reader to pronounce the term
• Parts of speech in English following each phonetic spelling, eg. n., adj.
• Cross-references in CAPITALS letters
• Also called example in italics
• Etymological information [-] for old and new terms that provides the reader the national origins of terms including
root words, prefixes and suffixes; historical information is critical to the appreciation of a term and its true meaning
• French, German, Italian and Spanish spellings of the term { - }
• A comprehensive explanation of the term
• Mathematical expressions where applicable
• Figures and tables where applicable
• A comprehensive reference section is included for further research
References are included for individual entries where a publication(s) is directly attributable to a definition or
description. Not all of the references listed in the Reference section are directly attributable to entries, but they were
reviewed for information and listed for the reader’s information. Published dictionaries and glossaries of materials were
very helpful for collecting information in the many diverse and smaller technologies of the huge field of polymers. The
editor is grateful that so much work has been done by other people interested in polymers.
The editor has attempted to utilize all relevant methods to convey the meaning of terms to the reader, because a term
often requires more information than a standard entry in a textbook dictionary, so this book is dedicated to a complete
expression. Terminology and correct pronunciation of technical terms is continuously evolving in scientific and industrial
fields and too often undocumented or published, and therefore, not shared with others sometimes leading to misunder-
standings. Engineering and scientific terms describe a material, procedure, test, theory or process, and communication
between technical people must involve similar jargon or much will be lost in the translation as often has been the editor’s
experience. The editor has made an attempt to provide the reader who has an interested in the industries that have evolved
from adhesives, coatings, inks, elastomers, plastics and textiles with the proper terminology to communicate with other
parties whether or not directly involved in the industries. This publication is a single volume in the formof a desk-handbook
that is hoped will be an invaluable tool for communicating in the spoken and written media.
Physics, electronic and magnetic terms because they are related to materials and processes (e.g., ampere).
Biomolecular materials and processes have in the recent decade overlapped with polymer science and engineering.
Advancements in polymeric materials research for biomolecular and medical applications are rapidly becoming
commercialized, examples include biocompatible adhesives for sutureless tissue bonding, liquid dressings for wounds
and many other materials used for in vitro and in vivomedical applications. To keep pace with these advancements, the
editor has included useful terms in the main body that are commonly used in the material sciences for these new
industries.
A microbiology section has been included to assist the reader in becoming familiar with the proper nomenclature of
bacteria, fungi, mildew, and yeasts – organisms that affect materials and processes because they are ubiquitous in our
environment. Corrosion of materials by microorganisms is commonplace, and identification of a specific organism is
critical to prevent its occurrence. Engineers and materials scientists will appreciate the extensive sections on different
types of microorganisms together with a section dedicated to microbiology terminology that is useful for communicat-
ing in the jargon of biologists instead of referring to all organisms as ‘‘bugs.’’
Preface ix
Newmaterials and processes, and therefore new terms, are constantly evolving with research, development and global
commercialization. The editor will periodically update this publication for the convenience of the reader.
Statistics, numerical analysis other data processing and experimental design terms are addressed as individual terms
and as a separate section in the appendix, but only as probability and statistics relate to polymer technology and not the
broad field of this mathematical science. The interactive equations are listed in the Statistics section of the Interactive
Polymer Technology program.
Interactive Polymer Technology Programs
Along with this book we are happy to provide a collection of unique and useful tools and interactive programs along with
this Springer Reference. You will find short descriptions of the different functions below. Please download the software at
the following website: http://extras.springer.com/2011/978-1-4419-6247-8
Please note that the file is more than 200MB. Download the ZIP file and unzip it. It is strongly recommended to read
the ReadMe.txt before installing. The software is started by opening the file InPolyTech.pdf and following the instruc-
tions. Detailed instructions can be found under ‘Help Instructions’.
The software consists of 15 programs and tools that are briefly described in the appendix.
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Mathematical Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Greek-Russian-English Alphabets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Elemental Symbols and Atomic Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Pronunciations Symbols and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Appendix A: Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Appendix B: International Standards Organization (ISO) Units and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Appendix C: Polymer Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Appendix D: Microorganisms, Biochemistry and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Appendix E: Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
Appendix F: Nomenclature for Organic Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Appendix G: Interactive Polymer Technology Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
Abbreviations and Symbols
Abbreviations
SymbolsAn
absorption (formerlyextinction) (= log ti�1)
A
AreaA
surfaceA
Helmholtz energy (A = U – TS)A
preexponential constant [ink = A exp (� E{/RT )]
A2
second virial coefficienta
exponent in the property/molecular weight relationship
(E{ = KMa); always with an
index, e.g., a�, as, etc.
a
linear absorption coefficient,a = l�1
absolute
absacre
spell outacre-foot
acre-ftair horsepower
air hpalternating-current (as
adjective)
a-c
Am
molar Helmholtz energyAmerican Society for
Testing and Materials
ASTM
amount of a substance
(mole)
n
ampere
A or ampampere-hour
amp-hramplitude, an elliptic
function
am.
angle
bangle, especially angle of
rotation in optical activity
/
Angstrom unit
Aantilogarithm
antilogao
constant in the Moffit–Yangequation
Area
AAtactic
atatomic weight
at. wtAssociation
Assn.atmosphere
atmAbbreviations
Symbolsaverage
avgAvogadro number
NLavoirdupois
avdpazimuth
az or abarometer
bar.barrel
bblBaume
Bebo
constant in the Mofit–Yangequation
board fee (feet board
measure)
fbm
boiler pressure
spell outboiling point
bpBoltzmann constant
kbrake horsepower
bhpbrake horsepower-hour
bhp-hrBrinell hardness number
BhnBritish Standards Institute
BSIBritish thermal unit1
Btu or Bbushel
buC
heat capacityc
specific heat capacity(formerly; specific heat); cp =
specific isobaric heat capacity,
cv = specific isochore heat
capacity
c
‘‘weight’’ concentration(= weight of solute divided by
volume of solvent); IUPAC
suggests the symbol r for this
quantity, which could lead to
confusion with the same
IUPAC symbol for density
c
speed of light in a vacuumc
speed of soundcalorie
calcandle
ccandle-hour
c-hrcandlepower
cpceiling temperature of
polymerization, oC
Tc
xiv
Abbreviations and SymbolsAbbreviations
Symbolscent
c or c=center to center
c to ccentigram
cgcentiliter
clcentimeter or centimeter
cmcentimeter-gram-second
(system)
cgs
centipoise
cPcentistokes
cStcharacteristic temperature
Ychemical
chem.chemical potential
mchemical shift
dchemically pure
cpcirca, about, approximate
ca.circular
circircular mils
cir milscis-tactic
ctCm
molar heat capacitycoefficient
coefcologarithm
cologcompare
cf.concentrate
concconductivity
cond, lconstant
constcontinental housepower
cont hpcord
cdcosecant
csccosine
coscosine of the amplitude, an
elliptic function
cn
cost, insurance, and freight
cifcotangent
cotcoulomb
spell outcounter electromotive force
cemfCtr
transfer constant (Ctr = ktr/kp)cubic
cucubic centimeter (liquid,
meaning milliliter. ml)
cu, cm, cm3
cubic centimeter
cm3cubic expansioncoefficient/
cubic foot cu ftcubic feet per minute
cfmcubic feet per second
cfsAbbreviations
Symbolscubic inch
cu in.cubic meter
cu m or m3cubic micron
cu m or cu mu or m3cubic millimeter
cu mm or mm3cubic yard
cu ydcurrent density
spell outcycles per second
spell out or ccylinder
cylD
diffusion coefficientDrot
rotational diffusion coefficientday
spell outdecibel
dbdecigram
d.g.decomposition, oC
Tdcdegree
deg or �degree Celsius
�Cdegree centigrade
Cdegree Fahrenheit
F or �degree Kelvin
K or nonedegree of crystallinity
/ degree of polymerization Xdegree Reaumur
Rdelta amplitude, an elliptic
function
dn
depolymerization
temperature
Tdp
density
rdiameter
diamDictionary of Architecture
and Construction
DAC
diffusion coefficient
Ddipole moment
pdirect-current (as abjective)
d-cdollar
$dozen
dozdram
drdynamic viscosity
ŋE
energy (Ek = kinetic energy,Ep = potential energy,
E{ = energy of activation)
E
electronegativityE
modulus of elasticity, Young’smodulus (E = sii /eii)
E
general propertyxv
Abbreviations
SymbolsE
electrical field strengthe
elementary chargee
parameter in the Q-ecopolymerize-tion theory
e
cohesive energy density(always with an index)
edition
Ed.Editor, edited
ed.efficiency
effelectric
elecelectric polarizability of
a molecule
/
electrical current strength
lelectrical potential
Velectrical resistance
R or Xelectromotive force
emfelectronegativity
Eelevation
elenergy
Eenthalpy
Hentropy
Sequation
eqequivalent weight
equiv wtet alii (and others)
et al.et cetera
etc.excluded volume
uexcluded volume cluster
integral
b
exempli gratia (for example)
e.g.expansion coefficient
/ external extF
forcef
fraction (exclusing molarfraction, mass fraction,
volume fraction)
f
molecular coefficient offriction (e.g., fs, fD, frot)
f
functionalityfarad
spell out or fFederal
Fed.feet board measure (board
feet)
fbm
feet per minute
fpmfeet per second
fpsflash point
flpAbbreviations and Symbols
Abbreviations
Symbolsfluid
flfoot
ftfoot-candle
ft-cfoot-Lambert
ft-Lfoot-pound
ft-lbfoot-pound-second
(system)
fps
foot-second (see cubic feet
per second)
fraction
Rfranc
frfree aboard ship
spell outfree alongside ship
spell outfree on board
fobfreezing point
fpfrequency
spell outfusion point
fnpG
Gibbs energy (formerly freeenergy or free enthalpy)
(G = H – TS)
G
shear modulus (G = sij/angleof shear)G
statistical weight fraction(Gi = gi /Si gi)
g
gravitational accelerationg
statistical weightg
gauche conformationg
parameter for thedimensions of branched
macromolecules
Gm
molar Gibbs energygallon
galgallons per minute
gpmgallons per second
gpsgauche conformation
gGibbs energy
Ggrain
spell outgram
ggram-calorie
g-calgreatest common divisor
gcdH
enthalpyHm
molar enthalpyh
heighth
Plank constanthaversine
havxvi
Abbreviations and SymbolsAbbreviations
Symbolsheat
Qheat capacity
Chectare
hahenry
Hhigh pressure (adjective)
h-phogshead
hhdhorsepower
hphorsepower-hour
hp-hrhour
h or hrhundred
Chundredweight (112 lb)
cwthydrogen ion
concentration, negative
logarithm of
pH
hyperbolic cosine
coshhyperbolic sine
sinhhyperbolic tangent
tanhI
electrical current strengthI
radiation intensity of a systemi
radiation intensity ofa molecule
ibidem (in the same place)
ibid.id est (that is)
i.e.inch
in.inch-pound
in-lbinches per second
ipsindicated horsepower
ihpindicated horsepower-hour
ihp-hrinfrared
IRinside diameter
IDintermediate-pressure
(adjective)
i-p
internal
intInternational Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry
IUPAC
isotactic
itJ
flow (of mass, volume, energy,etc.), always with
a corresponding index
joule
JK
general constantK
equilibrium constantK
compression modulus(p = � K DV/Vo)
k
Boltzmann constantAbbreviations
Symbolsk
rate constant for chemicalreactions (always with an
index)
Kelvin
K (Not oK)kilocalorie
kcalkilocycles per second
kckilogram
kgkilogram-calorie
kg-alkilogram-meter
kg-mkilograms per cubic meter
kg per cu m or kg/m3kilograms per second
kgpskiloliter
Klkilometer or kilometer
kmkilometers per second
kmpskilovolt
kvkilovolt-ampere
kvakilowatt
kwkilowatthour
kwhrKnoop hardeness number
KHNL
chain end-to-end distanceL
phenomenological coefficientl
lengthlambert
Llatitude
lat or fleast common multiple
lcmlength
llinear expansion coefficient
Үlinear foot
lin ftliquid
liqlira
spell outliter
llogarithm (common)
loglogarithm (natural)
log. or lnkibgutyde
kibg. or lloss angle
dlow-pressure (as adjuective)
l-plumen
1*lumen-hour
1-hr*luments per watt
lpwM
‘‘molecular weight’’ (IUPACmolar mass)
m
massmass
spell out or mmass fraction
wxvii
Abbreviations
Symbolsmathematics (ical)
mathmaximum
maxmean effective pressure
mepmean horizontal
candlepower
mhcp
meacycle
mHzmegohm
MOmelting point, -temperature
mp, Tmmeter
mmeter-kilogram
m-kgmetre
mmho
spell outmicrosmpere
ma or mu amicrofarad
mfmicroinch
min.micrometer (formerly
micron)
mm
micromicrofarad
mmfmicromicron
mmmicron
mmicrovolt
mvmicrowatt
mw or mu wmile
spell outmiles per hour
mphmiles per hour per second
mphpsmilli
mmilliampere
mamilliequivalent
meqmilligram
mgmillihenry
mhmillilambert
mLmilliliter or milliliter
mlmillimeter
mmmillimeter or mercury
(pressure)
mm Hg
millimicron
mm or m mumillion
spell outmillion gallons per day
mgdmillivolt
mvminimum
minminute
minminute (angular
measure)
´
Abbreviations and Symbols
Abbreviations
Symbolsminute (time) (in
astronomical tables)
m
mile
spell outmodal
mmodulus of elasticity
Emolar
Mmolar enthalpy
Hmmolar Gibbs Energy
Gmmolar heat capacity
Cmmole
molmole fraction
xmolecular weight
mol wt or Mmonth
spell outN
number of elementaryparticles (e.g., molecules,
groups, atoms, electrons)
NL
Avogadro number(Loschmidt’s number)
n
amount of a substance (mole)n
refractive indexnanometer (formerly
millimicron)
nm
National Association of
Corrosion Engineers
NACE
National Electrical Code
NECnewton
Nnormal
Nnumber of elementary
particles
N
Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
OSHA
ohm
Oohm-centimeter
ohm-cmoil absorption
O.A.ounce
ozonce-foot
oz-ftounce-inch
oz-in.outside diameter
ODosomotic pressure
∏P
permeability of membranesp
probabilityp
dipole momentpi
induced dipolar momentp
pressurexviii
Abbreviations and SymbolsAbbreviations
Symbolsp
extent of reactionPaint Testing Manual
PTMparameter
Qpartition function (system)
Qparts per billion
ppbparts per million
ppmpascal
Papeck
pkpenny (pency – new British)
p.pennyweight
dwtper
diagonal line in expressionswith unit symbols or (see
Fundamental Rules)
percent
%permeability of
membranes
P
peso
spell outpint
pt.Planck’s constant (in E = hv)
(6.62517 þ/� 0.00023
x 10�27 erg sec
h
polymolecularity index
Qpotential
spell outpotential difference
spell outpound
lbpound-foot
lb-ftpound-inch
lb-in.pound sterling
£pounds-force per square
inch
psi
pounds per brake
horsepower-hour
lb per bhp-hr
pounds per cubi foot
lb per cut ftpounds per square foot
psfpounds per square inch
psipounds per square inch
absolute
psia
power factor
spell out or pfpressure
pprobability
pQ
quantity of electricity, chargeQ
heatQ
partition function (system)Q
parameter in the Q–ecopolymerize-tion equation
Abbreviations
SymbolsQ, Q
polydispersity,polymolecularity in-dex
(Q ¼ Mw=Mn)
q
partition function (particles)quantity of electricity,
charge
Q
quart
qtquod vide (which see)
q.v.R
molar gas constantR
electrical resistanceRG
radius of gyrationRn
run numberRϑ
Rayleigh ratior
radiusro
initial molar ratio of reactivegroups in polycondensations
radian
spell outradius
rradius of gyration
RGrate constant
kRayleigh ratio
R9reactive kilovolt-ampere
kvarreactive volt-ampere
varreference(s)
refrefractive index
nrelaxation time
tresistivity
rrevolutions per minute
rpmrevolutions per second
rpsrod
spell outroot mean square
rmsS
entropySm
molar entropyS
solubility coefficients
sedimentation coefficients
selectivity coefficient inosmotic measurements)
Saybolt Universal seconds
SUSsecant
secsecond
s or secsecond (angular measure)
˝second-foot (see cubic feet
per second)
xix
Abbreviations
Symbolssecond (time) (in
astronomical tables)
s
Second virial coefficient
A2shaft horsepower
shpshilling
ssine
sinsine of the amplitude, an
elliptic function
sn
society
Soc.Soluble
solsolubility coefficient
Ssolubility parameter
dsolution
solnspecific gravity
sp grspecific heat
sp htspecific heat capacity
(formerly: specific heat)
c
specific optical rotation
[/]specific volume
sp volspherical candle power
scpsquare
sqsquare centimeter
sq cm or cm2square foot
sq ftsquare inch
sq in.square kilometer
sq km or km2square meter
sq m or m2square micron
sq m or m2square root of mean square
rmsstandard
stdStandard
Stnd.Standard deviation
sStaudinger index
[Z]stere
ssyndiotactic
stT
temperaturet
timet
trans conformationtangent
tantemperature
T or temptensile strength
tsthreodiisotactic
titthousand
Mthousand foot-pounds
kip-ftthousand pound
kipAbbreviations and Symbols
Abbreviations
Symbolston
spell outton-mile
spell outtrans conformation
ttrans-tactic
ttU
voltageU
internal energyUm
molar internal energyu
excluded volumeultraviolet
UVUnited States
U.S.V
volumeV
electrical potentialv
rate, rate of reactionv
specific volume always withan in-dex
vapor pressure
vpversed sine
versversus
vsvolt
v or Vvolt-ampere
vavolt-coulomb
spell outvoltage
Uvolume
V or vol.Volume (of a publication)
VolW
weightW
workw
mass functionwatt
w or Wwatthour
whrwatts per candle
wpcweek
spell outweight
W or wweight concentration*
cwork
y yieldX
degree of polymerizationX
electrical resistancex
mole fractio y yieldyard
ydyear
yrYoung’s
EZ
collision numberZ
z fractionz
ionic chargexx
Abbreviations and SymbolsAbbreviations
Symbolsz
coordination numberz
dissymmetry (light scattering)z
parameter in excludedvolume theory
a
angle, especially angle ofrotation in optical activity
a
cubic expandion coefficient[a = V�1 (∂V/∂T)p]
a
expansion coefficient (asreduced length, e.g., aL in the
chain end-to-end distance or
aR for the radius of gyration)
a
degree of crystallinity (alwayswith an index)
a
electric polarizability ofa molecule
[a]
‘‘specific’’ optical rotationb
angleb
coefficient of pressureb
exclused volume clusterintegral
G
preferential solvationg
angleg
surface tensiong
linear expansion coefficientd
loss angled
solubility parameterd
chemical shifte
linear expansion (e = Dl/lo)e
expectationer
relative permittivity (dielectricnumber)
�
dynamic viscosity[�]
Staudinger index (called Jo inDIN 1342)
Y
characteristic temperature,especial-ly theta temperature
y
angle, especially angle ofrotation
ϑ
angle, especially valenceangle
ĸ
isothermal compressibility[ĸ = V�1 (∂V/∂p)T]
ĸ
enthalpic interactionparameter in solution theory
Abbreviations
Symbolsl
wavelengthl
heat conductivityl
degree of couplingm
chemical potentialm
momentm
permanent dipole momentn
mement, with respect toa reference value
n
frequencyn
kinetic chain lengthx
shielding ratio in the theory ofrandom coils
X
partition functionP
osmotic pressurer
densitys
mechanical stress (sii =normal stress, sij = shear
stress)
s
standard deviations
hindrance parametert
relaxation timeti
internal transmittance(transmission factor)
(represents the ratio of
transmitted to absorbed light)
f
volume fraction’(r)
potential between twosegments separated by
a distance r
F
constant in the viscosity-molecular-weight relationship
[F]
‘‘molar’’ optical rotationw
interaction parameter insolution theory
c
entropic interactionparameter in solution theory
o
angular frequency, angularvelocity
O
angleO
probabilityO
skewness of a distribution*(= weight of solute divided by volume of solvent); IUPAC suggests the
symbol r for this quantity, which could lead to confusion with the
same IUPAC symbol for density.
xxi
Notations
The abbreviations for chemicals and polymer were taken
from the ‘‘Manual of Symbols and Terminology for Phys-
icochemical Quantities and Units,’’ Pure and Applied
Chemistry 21*1) (1970), but some were added because of
generally accepted use.
The ISO (International Standardization Organization)
has suggested that all extensive quantities should be
described by capital letters and all intensive quantities by
lower-case letters. IUPAC doe not follow this recommen-
dation, however, but uses lower-case letters for specific
quantities.
The following symbols are used above or after a letter.
Symbols Above Letters
— signifies an average, e.g., M is the average molecular
weight; more complicated averages are often indi-
cated by hi, e.g., R2G
� �is another way of writing R2
G
� �z
— stands for a partial quantity, e.g., ~vA is the
partial specific volume of the compound A; VA is
the volume of A, wherea ~VmA xxx is the partial molar
volume of A.
Superscripts
�
pure substance or standard state‘
infinite dilution or infinitely high molecular weightm
molar quantity (in cases where subscript letters areimpractical)
(q)
the q order of a moment (always in parentheses){
activated complexSubscripts
Initial
State1
solvent2
solute3
additional components (e.g., precipitant, salt, etc.)am
amorphousB
brittlenessbd
bondcr
crystallinecrit
criticalcryst
crystallizatione
equilibriumAbbreviations and Symbols
Initial
StateE
end groupG
glassy statei
run numberi
initiationi
isotactic diadsii
isotactic triadsIs
heterotactic triadsj
run numberk
run numberm
molarM
melting processmon
monomern
number averagep
polymerization, especially propagationpol
polymerr
general for averages
syndiotactic diadsss
syndiotactic triadsst
start reactiont
terminationtr
transferu
monomeric unitw
weight averagez
z averagePrefixes
at
atacticct
cis-tacticeit
erythrodiisotacticit
isotacticst
syndiotactictit
threodiisotactictt
trans-tacticSquare brackets around a letter signify molar concen-
trations. (IUPAC prescribes the symbol c for molar
councentrations, but to date this has consistently been
used for the mass/volume unit.)
Angles are always given by �.Apart from some exceptions, the meter is not used as
a unit of length; the units cm and mm derived from it are
used. Use of the meter in macromolecular science leads to
very impractical units.
Mathematical Signs
Sign
DefinitionOperations
þ
Addition�
Subtraction�
Multiplication·
Multiplication�
Division/
Division�
Composition[
Union\
Intersection�
Plus or minus�
Minus or plusConvolution
LDirect sum, variation
Ө
Various NVarious
JVarious
:
RatioЦ
AmalgamationRelations
=
Equal to6¼
Not equal to�
Nearly equal toffi
Equals approximately, isomorphic<
Less than<<
Much less than>
Greater than>>
Much greater than Less than or equal to Les than or equal to≦
Less than or equal to�
Greater than or equal to�
Grean than or equalt o≧
Greater than or equal to�
Equivalent to, congruent to≢
Not equivalent to, not congruent to│
Divides, divisible by~
Similar to, asymptotically equal to:=
AssignmentSign
Definition2
A member of Subset of�
Subset of or equal to�
Superset of�
Superset of or equal to/
Varies as, proportional to¼:
Approaches a limit, definition!
Tends to, maps to←
Maps from7!
Maps to↪ or ↩
Maps into□
d’Alembertian operatorS
SummationП
Product RIntegral
∮
Contour integralLogic
^
And, conjunctionv
Or, distunction¬
Negation)
Implies!
Implies,
If and only if↔
If and only if∃
Existential quantifier8
Universal quantifier2
A member o=2
Not a member of├
Assertion∴
Hence, therefore∵
BecauseRadial units
0
Minute00
Second�
DegreeConstants
p
pi (�3.14159265)e
Base of natural logarithms(�2.71828183)
xxiv
Mathematical SignsSign
DefinitionGeometry
⊥
Perpendiculark
Parallel∦
Not parallel∠
Angle∢
Spherical anglev
Equal anglesMiscellaneous
i
Square root of -10
Prime00
Double prime0 0 0
Triple prime√
Square root, radical ffi3p
Cube root
ffinp
nth root
!
Factorial!!
Double factorialØ
Empty set, null set‘
InfinitySign
Definition∂
Partial differentialΔ
Delta∇
Nabla, del∇2,D
Laplacian operatorEnglish-Greek–Latin Numerical Prefixes
English
Greek Latin2
bis di3
tris tri4
tetrakis tetra5
pentakis penta6
hexakis hexa7
heptakis hepta8
octakis octa9
nonakis nona10
decakis decaGreek-Russian-English Alphabets
Greek
letter
Greek
name
English
equivalent
Russian
letter
English
equivalent
A
a Alpha (a) A а (a)B
b Beta (b) Б б (b)B
в (v)G
g Gamma (g) G г (g)D
d Delta (d) Д д (d)E
є Epsilon (e) E e (ye)Z
z Zeta (z) Ж ж (zh)З
з (z)H
Z Eta (a) И и (i, e)Y
y Theta (th) Й й (e)I
i Iota (e) К к (k)Л
л (l)K
k Kappa (k) М м (m)L
l Lambda (l) Н н (n)О
о (o, o)M
m Mu (m) О о (o, o)∏
P (p)N
n Nu (n) Ρ р (r)X
x Xi (ks) C с (s)Т
т (t)O
o Omicron a У у ooP
p Pi (P) F ф (f)X
x (kh)P
r Rho (r) X x (kh)Ц
ц (ts)S
s Sigma (s) Ч ч (ch)T
t Tau (t) Ш ш (sh)U
v Upsilon (u, oo) Щ щ (shch)Ъ
ъ 8Ф
ø Phi (f) Ы ы (e)X
w Chi (H) ь ь (e)C
c Psi (ps) Э э (e)Ю
ю (u)O
o Omega (o) Я я (ya)English-Greek-Latin Numbers
English
Greek Latin1
mono uni2
bis di3
tris tri4
tetrakis tetra5
pentakis penta6
hexakis hexa7
heptakis hepta8
octakis octa9
nonakis nona10
decakis decaInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry:
Rules Concerning Numerical Terms Used in Organic
Chemical Nomenclature (specifically as prefixes for
hydrocarbons)
1
mono-orhen-
10 deca-
100 hecta- 1000 kilia-2
di- or do- 20 icosa- 200 dicta- 2000 dilia-3
tri- 30 triaconta- 300 tricta- 3000 trilia-4
tetra- 40tetraconta-
400 tetracta
4000tetralia-
5
penta- 50pentaconta-
500
pentactra
5000
pentalia-
6
hexa- 60hexaconta-
600 hexacta
6000hexalia-
7
hepta- 70hepaconta-
700
heptacta-
7000
hepalia-
8
octa- 80octaconta-
800 ocacta-
8000 ocatlia-9
nona- 90nonaconta-
900
nonactta-
9000
nonalia-
Source: IUPAC, Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry
(N. Lorzac’h and published in Pure and Appl. Chem 58: 1693–1696
(1986))
Elemental Symbols and Atomic Weights
Source: International Union of Pure and Applied Chem-
istry (IUPAC) 2001Values from the 2001 table Pure Appl.
Chem., 75, 1107–1122 (2003). The values of zinc, krypton,
molybdenum and dysprosium have been modified. The
approved name for element 110 is included, see Pure Appl.
Chem., 75, 1613–1615 (2003). The proposed name for
element 111 is also included.
A number in parentheses indicates the uncertainty in
the last digit of the atomic weight.
List of Elements in Atomic Number Order
At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes1
H Hydrogen 1.00794(7) 1, 2, 32
He Helium 4.002602(2) 1, 23
Li Lithium [6.941(2)] 1, 2, 3, 44
Be Beryllium 9.012182(3)5
B Boron 10.811(7) 1, 2, 36
C Carbon 12.0107(8) 1, 27
N Nitrogen 14.0067(2) 1, 28
O Oxygen 15.9994(3) 1, 29
F Fluorine 18.9984032(5)10
Ne Neon 20.1797(6) 1, 311
Na Sodium 22.989770(2)12
Mg Magnesium 24.3050(6)13
Al Aluminium 26.981538(2)14
Si Silicon 28.0855(3) 215
P Phosphorus 30.973761(2)16
S Sulfur 32.065(5) 1, 217
Cl Chlorine 35.453(2) 318
Ar Argon 39.948(1) 1, 219
K Potassium 39.0983(1) 120
Ca Calcium 40.078(4) 121
Sc Scandium 44.955910(8)22
Ti Titanium 47.867(1)23
V Vanadium 50.9415(1)24
Cr Chromium 51.9961(6)25
Mn Manganese 54.938049(9)26
Fe Iron 55.845(2)27
Co Cobalt 58.933200(9)28
Ni Nickel 58.6934(2)29
Cu Copper 63.546(3) 2At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes30
Zn Zinc 65.409(4)31
Ga Gallium 69.723(1)32
Ge Germanium 72.64(1)33
As Arsenic 74.92160(2)34
Se Selenium 78.96(3)35
Br Bromine 79.904(1)36
Kr Krypton 83.798(2) 1, 337
Rb Rubidium 85.4678(3) 138
Sr Strontium 87.62(1) 1, 239
Y Yttrium 88.90585(2)40
Zr Zirconium 91.224(2) 141
Nb Niobium 92.90638(2)42
Mo Molybdenum 95.94(2) 143
Tc Technetium [98] 544
Ru Ruthenium 101.07(2) 145
Rh Rhodium 102.90550(2)46
Pd Palladium 106.42(1) 147
Ag Silver 107.8682(2) 148
Cd Cadmium 112.411(8) 149
In Indium 114.818(3)50
Sn Tin 118.710(7) 151
Sb Antimony 121.760(1) 152
Te Tellurium 127.60(3) 153
I Iodine 126.90447(3)54
Xe Xenon 131.293(6) 1, 355
Cs Caesium 132.90545(2)56
Ba Barium 137.327(7)57
La Lanthanum 138.9055(2) 158
Ce Cerium 140.116(1) 159
Pr Praseodymium 140.90765(2)60
Nd Neodymium 144.24(3) 161
Pm Promethium [145] 562
Sm Samarium 150.36(3) 163
Eu Europium 151.964(1) 164
Gd Gadolinium 157.25(3) 165
Tb Terbium 158.92534(2)66
Dy Dysprosium 162.500(1) 167
Ho Holmium 164.93032(2)68
Er Erbium 167.259(3) 1xxviii
Elemental Symbols and Atomic WeightsAt No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes69
Tm Thulium 168.93421(2)70
Yb Ytterbium 173.04(3) 171
Lu Lutetium 174.967(1) 172
Hf Hafnium 178.49(2)73
Ta Tantalum 180.9479(1)74
W Tungsten 183.84(1)75
Re Rhenium 186.207(1)76
Os Osmium 190.23(3) 177
Ir Iridium 192.217(3)78
Pt Platinum 195.078(2)79
Au Gold 196.96655(2)80
Hg Mercury 200.59(2)81
Tl Thallium 204.3833(2)82
Pb Lead 207.2(1) 1, 283
Bi Bismuth 208.98038(2)84
Po Polonium [209] 585
At Astatine [210] 586
Rn Radon [222] 587
Fr Francium [223] 588
Ra Radium [226] 589
Ac Actinium [227] 590
Th Thorium 232.0381(1) 1, 591
Pa Protactinium 231.03588(2) 592
U Uranium 238.02891(3) 1, 3, 593
Np Neptunium [237] 594
Pu Plutonium [244] 595
Am Americium [243] 596
Cm Curium [247] 597
Bk Berkelium [247] 598
Cf Californium [251] 599
Es Einsteinium [252] 5100
Fm Fermium [257] 5101
Md Mendelevium [258] 5102
No Nobelium [259] 5103
Lr Lawrencium [262] 5104
Rf Rutherfordium [261] 5, 6105
Db Dubnium [262] 5, 6106
Sg Seaborgium [266] 5, 6107
Bh Bohrium [264] 5, 6108
Hs Hassium [277] 5, 6109
Mt Meitnerium [268] 5, 6110
Ds Darmstadtium [281] 5, 6111
Rg Roentgenium [272] 5, 6At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes112
Uub Ununbium [285] 5, 6114
Uuq Ununquadium [289] 5, 6116
Uuh Ununhexium see Noteabove
118
Uuo Ununoctium see Noteabove
1. Geological specimens are known in which the element
has an isotopic composition outside the limits for
normal material. The difference between the atomic
weight of the element in such specimens and that given
in the Table may exceed the stated uncertainty.
2. Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial
material prevents a more precise value being given; the
tabulated value should be applicable to any normal
material.
3. Modified isotopic compositions may be found in com-
mercially available material because it has been subject
to an undisclosed or inadvertant isotopic fraction-
ation. Substantial deviations in atomic weight of the
element from that given in the Table can occur.
4. Commercially available Li materials have atomic
weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if
a more accurate value is required, it must be deter-
mined for the specific material [range quoted for 1995
table 6.94 and 6.99].
5. Element has no stable nuclides. The value enclosed in
brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the
longest-lived isotope of the element. However three
such elements (Th, Pa, and U) do have a characteristic
terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an
atomic weight is tabulated.
6. The names and symbols for elements 112-118 are
under review. The temporary system recommended
by J Chatt, Pure Appl. Chem., 51, 381–384 (1979) is
used above. The names of elements 101-109 were
agreed in 1997 (See Pure Appl. Chem., 1997, 69,
2471–2473) and for element 110 in 2003 (see Pure
Appl. Chem., 2003, 75, 1613–1615). The proposed
name for element 111 is also included.
List of Elements in Name Order
At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes89
Ac Actinium [227] 513
Al Aluminium 26.981538(2)95
Am Americium [243] 551
Sb Antimony 121.760(1) 1xxix
At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes18
Ar Argon 39.948(1) 1, 233
As Arsenic 74.92160(2)85
At Astatine [210] 556
Ba Barium 137.327(7)97
Bk Berkelium [247] 54
Be Beryllium 9.012182(3)83
Bi Bismuth 208.98038(2)107
Bh Bohrium [264] 5, 65
B Boron 10.811(7) 1, 2, 335
Br Bromine 79.904(1)48
Cd Cadmium 112.411(8) 155
Cs Caesium 132.90545(2)20
Ca Calcium 40.078(4) 198
Cf Californium [251] 56
C Carbon 12.0107(8) 1, 258
Ce Cerium 140.116(1) 117
Cl Chlorine 35.453(2) 324
Cr Chromium 51.9961(6)27
Co Cobalt 58.933200(9)29
Cu Copper 63.546(3) 296
Cm Curium [247] 5110
Ds Darmstadtium [281] 5, 6105
Db Dubnium [262] 5, 666
Dy Dysprosium 162.500(1) 199
Es Einsteinium [252] 568
Er Erbium 167.259(3) 163
Eu Europium 151.964(1) 1100
Fm Fermium [257] 59
F Fluorine 18.9984032(5)87
Fr Francium [223] 564
Gd Gadolinium 157.25(3) 131
Ga Gallium 69.723(1)32
Ge Germanium 72.64(1)79
Au Gold 196.96655(2)72
Hf Hafnium 178.49(2)108
Hs Hassium [277] 5, 62
He Helium 4.002602(2) 1, 267
Ho Holmium 164.93032(2)1
H Hydrogen 1.00794(7) 1, 2, 349
In Indium 114.818(3)53
I Iodine 126.90447(3)77
Ir Iridium 192.217(3)26
Fe Iron 55.845(2)Elemental Symbols and Atomic Weights
At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes36
Kr Krypton 83.798(2) 1, 357
La Lanthanum 138.9055(2) 1103
Lr Lawrencium [262] 582
Pb Lead 207.2(1) 1, 23
Li Lithium [6.941(2)] 1, 2, 3, 471
Lu Lutetium 174.967(1) 112
Mg Magnesium 24.3050(6)25
Mn Manganese 54.938049(9)109
Mt Meitnerium [268] 5, 6101
Md Mendelevium [258] 580
Hg Mercury 200.59(2)42
Mo Molybdenum 95.94(2) 160
Nd Neodymium 144.24(3) 110
Ne Neon 20.1797(6) 1, 393
Np Neptunium [237] 528
Ni Nickel 58.6934(2)41
Nb Niobium 92.90638(2)7
N Nitrogen 14.0067(2) 1, 2102
No Nobelium [259] 576
Os Osmium 190.23(3) 18
O Oxygen 15.9994(3) 1, 246
Pd Palladium 106.42(1) 115
P Phosphorus 30.973761(2)78
Pt Platinum 195.078(2)94
Pu Plutonium [244] 584
Po Polonium [209] 519
K Potassium 39.0983(1) 159
Pr Praseodymium 140.90765(2)61
Pm Promethium [145] 591
Pa Protactinium 231.03588(2) 588
Ra Radium [226] 586
Rn Radon [222] 575
Re Rhenium 186.207(1)45
Rh Rhodium 102.90550(2)111
Rg Roentgenium [272] 5, 637
Rb Rubidium 85.4678(3) 144
Ru Ruthenium 101.07(2) 1104
Rf Rutherfordium [261] 5, 662
Sm Samarium 150.36(3) 121
Sc Scandium 44.955910(8)106
Sg Seaborgium [266] 5, 634
Se Selenium 78.96(3)14
Si Silicon 28.0855(3) 2xxx
Elemental Symbols and Atomic WeightsAt No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes47
Ag Silver 107.8682(2) 111
Na Sodium 22.989770(2)38
Sr Strontium 87.62(1) 1, 216
S Sulfur 32.065(5) 1, 273
Ta Tantalum 180.9479(1)43
Tc Technetium [98] 552
Te Tellurium 127.60(3) 165
Tb Terbium 158.92534(2)81
Tl Thallium 204.3833(2)90
Th Thorium 232.0381(1) 1, 569
Tm Thulium 168.93421(2)50
Sn Tin 118.710(7) 122
Ti Titanium 47.867(1)74
W Tungsten 183.84(1)At No
Symbol Name Atomic Wt Notes112
Uub Ununbium [285] 5, 6116
Uuh Ununhexium see Noteabove
118
Uuo Ununoctium see Noteabove
114
Uuq Ununquadium [289] 5, 692
U Uranium 238.02891(3) 1, 3, 523
V Vanadium 50.9415(1)54
Xe Xenon 131.293(6) 1, 370
Yb Ytterbium 173.04(3) 139
Y Yttrium 88.90585(2)30
Zn Zinc 65.409(4)40
Zr Zirconium 91.224(2) 1Pronounciation Symbols and Abbreviations
ә
Banana, collide, abut ▐ə, ▐ə Humdrum, abutә
Immediately preceding \l\, \n\, \m\, \ŋ\, as inbattle, mitten, eaten, and sometimes open\▐ o-pәm\, lock and key \-ә ŋ-\; immediately
following \l\, \m\, \r\, as often in French table,
prisme, titre
ər
further, merger, bird ▐ə-,▐ə-r As in two different pronunciations of hurry \▐ hәr-e, \▐ hә-re\
a
mat, map, mad, gag, snap, patcha
day, fade, date, aorta, drape, capea
bother, cot, and, with most American speakers,father, cart
a
father as pronounced by speakers who do notrhyme it with bother; French patte
au
now, loud, outb
baby, ribch
chin, nature \▐na-chər\d
did, addere
bet, bed, peck ▐ e,▐ e beat, nosebleed, evenly, easye
easy, mealyf
fifty, cuffg
go, big, gifth
hat, aheadhw
whale as pronounced by those who do not havethe same pronunciation for both whale and wail
i
tip, banish, activeı
site, side, buy, tripej
job, gem, edge, join, judgek
kin, cook, achek
German ich, Buch; one pronunciation of lochl
lily, poolm
murmur, dim, nymphn
no, own n Indicates that a preceeding vowel or diphthong ispronounced with the nasal passages open, as in
French un bon vin blanc \œn-bonvan-blan\
ŋ
sing \▐ siŋ \, singer \▐ siŋ-әr\, finger \▐fiŋ-gәr\, ink\▐ iŋk\o
bone, know, beauo
saw, all, gnaw, caughtfool
took
œ
French coeuf, German Holleœ
French feu, German Hohleόi
coin, destroyp
pepper, lipr
red, car, raritys
source, lesssh
as in shy, mission, machine, special (actually, thisis a single sound, not two); with a hyphen
between, two sounds as in grasshopper
\▐gras-▐ha-pәr\
t
tie, attack, late, later, latterth
as in thin, ether (actually, this is a single sound, nottwo); with a hyphen between, two sounds as in
knighthood \▐nıt-▐h----d\
th
then, either, this (actually, this is a single sound,not two)
u
rule, youth, union \▐yun-yən\, few \▐ fyu\u
pull, wood, book, curable \▐ky u r-ә-bәl\, fury\▐ fy----r-e\ue
German fullen, hubschue
French rue, German fuhlenv
vivid, givew
we, awayy
yard, young, cue \▐kyu\, mute \▐myut\, union\▐yun-yәn\
y indicates that during the articulation of the soundrepresented by the preceding character the front
of the tongue has substantially the position it has
for the articulation of the first sound of yard, as in
French digne \deny\
Z
zone, raisezh
as in vision, azure \▐a-zhər\ (actually this is a singlesound, not two).
\
reversed virgule used in pairs to mark thebeginning and end of a transcription: \▐pen\
▐ mark preceding a syllable with primary (strongest)stress: \▐pen-mən-▐ ship\
▐
mark preceding a syllable with secondary(medium) stress: \▐pen-mən-▐ ship\
-
mark of syllable divisionxxxii
Pronounciation Symbols and Abbreviations( )
indicate that what is symbolized between ispresent in some utterances but not in others:
factory \▐ fak-t(ə-)re
�
indicates that many regard as unacceptable thepronunciation variant immediately following:
cupola \▐kyu-pə-lə, �-▐ lo\
Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations
(date)
date that word was first recorded as having beenused
[. . .]
etomology and origin(s) of word{. . .}
usage and/or languages, including French, German,Italian and Spanish
adj
adjectiveadv
adverbB.C.
before ChristBrit.
Britain, BritishC
centigrade, Celsiusc
centuryE
EnglishEng.
EnglandF
French, FahrenheitFr.
Francefr.
fromG
GermanGr.
GermanyL
LatinME
middle Englishn
nounneut.
neuterNL
new LatinOE
old EnglishOL
old Latinpl
pluralprp.
present participleR
Russiansing.
singularS
SpanishU.K.
United Kingdomv
verbSource: From Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate� Dictionary, Eleventh
Editioh, �2004 by Merriam-Webster, incorporated, (www.Merriam-
Webster.com). With permission.
Languages
French, German and Spanish translations are enclosed in
{--} and preceded by F, G, I and S, respectively; and gender
is designated by f-feminine, m-masculine, n-neuter. For
example: Polymer--{F polymere m} represents the French
translation ‘‘polymere’’ of the English word polymer and it
is in the masculine case. These translations were obtain
from multi-language dictionaries including: A Glossary of
Plastics Terminology in 5 Languages, 5th Ed., Glenz,
W., (ed) Hanser Gardner Publications, Inc., Cinicinnati,
2001. By permission).