ESS3808Sport Psychology

Martin I. JonesBSc MSc Phd PGCHE CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEA

Perfectionism

What is perfectionism

?

PerfectionismA personality feature characterized by a person's striving for flawlessness and setting excessively high and demanding performance standards, accompanied by overly critical self-evaluations and concerns regarding others' evaluations

(Flett & Hewitt, 2002)

Self-oriented perfectionisminvolves demanding perfection of oneself

(Hewitt & Flett, 1991).

Other-oriented perfectionism involves demanding perfection of others

(Hewitt & Flett, 1991).

Socially prescribed perfectionism involves perceiving others are demanding perfection of oneself

(Hewitt & Flett, 1991)

Clinical perfectionism“The overdependence of self-evaluation on the determined pursuit of personally demanding self-imposed standards in at least one highly salient domain despite adverse consequences.”

Shafran, Cooper and Fairburn (2002)

Traditional viewPerfectionism is bad and something to avoid

Perfectionism has been linked to various negativeoutcomes Characterological feelings of failureGuiltIndecisivenessProcrastinationShameLow self-esteem

AlcoholismAnorexiaDepressionPersonality disorders

Outcomes arise from the perfectionist's tendency

Set unrealistic standards and striving to attain these standards

Selective attention to and overgeneralization of failure

Stringent self-evaluations

Tendency to engage in all-or-none thinking wherebyonly total success or total failure exist as outcomes

Modern ViewThere is general consensus that perfectionism

is best understood as a multi-dimensional construct and can be good

"Normal perfectionism"In which individuals enjoy pursuing their perfectionisticStrivings

"Neurotic perfectionism"In which individuals sufferfrom their perfectionistic striving

Dimensional approach or a group-based approach

Dimensional approach, the facets of perfectionism are combined to form two independent dimensions of perfectionism

Perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns

Dimensional approach or a group-based approach

Group-based approach, the facets of perfectionism are combined to form two groups of perfectionists

Healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionist“Normal” vs “Neurotic”“Adaptive” vs “maladaptive”

Perfectionistic strivings Hypothesized to be associated with

Positive characteristics

Perfectionistic concerns Hypothesized to be associated with

With negative characteristics

Maladaptive Perfectionism

“Maladaptive evaluative concerns”“Neurotic perfectionism”

“Dysfunctional perfectionism”“Negative perfectionism”“Passive perfectionism”

“Conscientious perfectionism”

Maladaptive perfectionism

Characterized by evaluative concerns, worry and socially

prescribed aspects of perfectionism

Adaptive Perfectionism

“Positive achievement striving”“Normal perfectionism”

“Functional perfectionism““Positive perfectionism”

“Active perfectionism”“Self-evaluative perfectionism”

Adaptive perfectionism

Concerns positive striving, high personal standards and self-oriented perfectionism

Stoeber & Otto (2006)Perfectionistic striving related to conscientiousness, extraversion, endurance, positive affect, satisfaction with life, active coping styles, and achievement, and to lower levels of external control and suicidal ideation.

The Social Expectations ModelThis model extends the Rogerian notion of conditions of worth

The child believes that parental approval and love depends on meeting the parents’ high standards and unrealistic expectations

The Social Learning ModelThis model focuses on the impact of perfectionist parents (and coaches?) on their children. Findings indicate that children tend to imitate their parents and learn to be perfectionists

The Social Reaction ModelThis model is built on the assumption that people become perfectionists to cope with a harsh, abusive environment

The person becomes a perfectionist as a means to gain a sense of control in a highly unpredictable world

Frost Multi-dimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS)Concern over mistakes,Organization, Personal standards, Doubts about actions,Parental expectation, Parental criticism

Frost, R., Marten, P., Lahart, C. and Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468.

The Hewitt and Flett Multi-dimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS)Self-oriented perfectionism, Socially prescribed perfectionism, Other oriented perfectionism

Hewitt, P. L. and Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470.

Perfectionism and sport

The problem?There are many sports in which absolute perfection is required

Which sports?Why those sports? ?

Negative, self-defeating outcomes and unhealthy patterns of behaviour are evident among those athletes who are characterized by an extreme, perfectionistic personality and who are focused cognitively on attaining perfection

Flett & Hewitt (2005, p 14)

Perfectionism, anxiety, and failure orientation

Concern over mistakes is associated with anxiety, low confidence, a failure orientation, and negative reactions to mistakes during competition

High personal standards is not associated with anxiety or self-confidence; however, athletes high in personal-standards perfectionism reported difficulty concentrating while performing, and they experienced worries about the reactions of the audience

Perfectionism and goal orientation in sports

Athletes who are extreme perfectionists have a pervasive ego orientation, and this should have debilitating effects if they also harbour doubts about their level of ability

Perfectionism and self-esteemAthletes who have low self-esteem, are dissatisfied with their performance, and give comparatively low ratings to their competence (relative to the self-ratings of other athletes) tended to be concerned about their mistakes, doubted their actions, and perceived their parents as being critical of them

Is it that simple?Intervening factors?

Perfectionism and stress?

Hill & Curran (2015)As a society we tend to hold perfectionism as a sign of virtue or high-achievement. Yet our findings show that perfectionism is a largely destructive trait

Too often people confuse perfectionism with more desirable features such as being conscientious

Meta-analysis revealed that perfectionistic strivings had small negative or non-significant relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout.

By contrast, perfectionistic concerns displayed medium-to- large and medium positive relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout.

CHRONIC STRESS

BURNOUT=

Stress = Perceived imbalance between task demands and resources

Burnout DefinedAn enduring experiential syndrome that manifests as a reaction to chronic psychological and psychosocial stressors

A psychological syndrome comprising three key dimensions:

Exhaustion - energy, Cynicism – involvement, Inefficacy- efficacy

Maslach (2003)

Maslach and colleagues (2003)Contend that burnout is the erosion of engagement

Burnout and engagement can be considered conceptual opposites positioned on opposing poles of a continuum.

Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) Contend that rather than being polar opposites, burnout and engagement are actually independent states of mind that although negatively correlated, should be treated separately

Emotional & Physical

ExhaustionCynicism Inefficacy

Other key features Relatively Chronic State

BURNOUT

Emotional & Physical

ExhaustionDevaluation Reduced athletic

accomplishment

Other key features Relatively Chronic State

BURNOUT

Where did it come from? The dark side of striving?

The result of too much caring, commitment and stress ?

How is burnout different to AnxietyDepressionOvertrainingStalenessDropout

Affective manifestations In burnout cases typically include a suppressed mood state (e.g., gloomy, tearful and depressed) but can also involve significant shifts in mood such as aggressive and anxiety based states resulting from frustration and diminished tolerance and oversensitivity.

Cognitive manifestations Can incorporate impaired functioning in information processing, memory, attention and concentration as well as rigid and detached thinking stemming from compromised voluntary or executive control (Van Der Linden, Keijsers, Eling & Van Schaijk, 2005).

Physical manifestations Research examining physical manifestations has provided contradictory evidence regarding the relationship between burnout and health. Physical symptoms generally associated with burnout include headaches, nausea, restlessness, sleep disturbance, ulcers, high blood pressure, disrupted menstrual cycle, and frequent and prolonged colds

Behavioral manifestations Behaviors that have been identified are increased substance use (e.g., alcohol, drugs and smoking), over and under-eating, high risk taking behavior, avoidance, impulsivity and procrastination

Motivational manifestations The burned out individual is considered to be experiencing a motivational crisis in which drive has vanished, replaced by disillusionment and despondence.

Demands

Coping Resources

History of stressPersonality

Burnout

Perceived Overload (exhaustion)

Unmet goals/expectations (reduced accomplishment)

Lack of enjoyment/meaning (devaluation)

Perceived stress over time

Where does perfectionism fit?

Martin I. JonesBSc MSc PhD CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEA

m.i.jones@exeter.ac.uk@drmijones