Exam structure

• 18 multiple choice questions• Answer the first essay question and 3 of

remaining 4 essays questions.• Emphasis will be later chapters

– Ch 2, 6, 7, 8, 10 from chapters covered prior to 2nd midterm

• Review– All chapters after 2nd midterm– All readings from Ropes book after 2nd midterm– All cases

Readings in Ropes book

• Leadership: does it matter? – How can we better understand how this

concept works within an organizational perspective?

– Introduction and stories illustrate what effective leaders sometimes have to do in an organizational setting.

• Power: contrast formal and informal sources of power.

Cases (Blackgold and other three) and Office Space movie

• There are opportunities to test how you can use concepts discussed in class to understand or explain the situations in these cases, e.g.– Social perceptions– Diversity– Managing in an “e-business”– Motivating individuals, both those who work and do

not work for you– Decision making, including game theory– Evaluating performance and giving feedback– How to deal with or manage conflict– Leadership style

•Foundation of Organizational CultureFoundation of Organizational Culture

•Layers of Organizational Culture

•Four Functions of Organizational Culture

•Types of Organizational Culture

•Outcomes Associated with Organizational Culture

•How Cultures are Embedded in Organizations

2-1a

Chapter Two

Layers of Organizational Culture

• Artifacts – visible, physical manifestations– IBM typewriter

• Values – espoused and enacted– Values contained in statement– Values as seen in behavior

• Basic assumptions

Functions of Organizational Culture

• Creates identity

• Encourages commitment

• Provides stability

• Shapes behavior

Embedding Organizational Culture

• Socialization process, for example– Interview – Know Your Company seminars– Christmas Party performance– Mentor

• Mentoring

The Fundamentals of Employee The Fundamentals of Employee MotivationMotivation

•Need Theories of Motivation

Motivating Employees Through Job Motivating Employees Through Job DesignDesign

•The Mechanistic Approach

•Motivational Approaches

•Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches

6-1a

Chapter Six OutlineChapter Six Outline

6-2

Implications Associated with This Implications Associated with This DefinitionDefinition

• Behavior is purposive rather than random- People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason

• Motivation arouses people to do something- People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so

• Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal

• Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task

Motivation:Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousaldirection, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

Motivation DefinedMotivation Defined

Need TheoriesNeed Theories6-4

Needs Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior.

Maslow’s Need TheoryMaslow’s Need Theory

•Motivation is a function of five basic needs- physiological safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

McClelland’s Need TheoryMcClelland’s Need Theory

•The needs for achievement, affiliation, and power affect behavior.

Approaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job Design

6-5

2. Motivational Approaches2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees’ affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological techniques focus on reducing employees’ physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers’ feedback about facilities and equipment.

1. The Mechanistic Approach1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.

• Need Fulfillment:Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to which a job satisfies a person’s needs.

• Discrepancies:Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job.

• Value Attainment:Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values.

• Equity:Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work.

• Trait/Genetic Components:Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function of personal traits and genetic factors.

6-10

Causes of Job SatisfactionCauses of Job Satisfaction

Motivation II: Equity, Motivation II: Equity, Expectancy, and Goal Expectancy, and Goal

SettingSetting

Chapter Seven

7-2a

Figure 7-1a

A. An Equitable A. An Equitable SituationSituation

SelfSelf OtherOther

$2

1 hour

= $2 per hour$4

2 hours

= $2 per hour

Negative and Positive InequityNegative and Positive Inequity

7-2b

Figure 7-1b

$2

1 hour

= $2 per hour$3

1 hour

= $3 per hour

B. Negative InequityB. Negative Inequity

SelfSelf OtherOther

Negative and Positive Inequity Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)(cont)

7-2c

Figure 7-1c

$2

1 hours

= $1 per hour

C. Positive InequityC. Positive Inequity

$3

1 hour

= $3 per hour

SelfSelf OtherOther

Negative and Positive Inequity Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)(cont)

7-3

Equity Sensitivity Equity Sensitivity is an individual’s tolerance for negative and positive equity.

• BenevolentsBenevolents

• SensitivesSensitives

• EntitledsEntitleds

Equity SensitivityEquity Sensitivity

8-3

Feedback:Feedback: “Objective information about

individual or collective performance.”

Functions of Feedback:Functions of Feedback: - Instructional - Motivational

Sources of FeedbackSources of Feedback

-Task

-Self

- Others

Ch 8: FeedbackCh 8: Feedback

Upward FeedbackUpward Feedback:: Subordinates evaluate

their manager’s style and performance. 360-Degree Feedback360-Degree Feedback:: Specific (typically

anonymous) feedback generated by one’s manager, peers, subordinates, and other key people.

For group discussion:For group discussion: Are you in favor of this trend toward nontraditional feedback? Explain. What are its limits?

8-5

Nontraditional FeedbackNontraditional Feedback

• Managers need to keep the following tips in mind when giving feedback:

• Relate feedback to existing performance goalsgoals and clear expectations.expectations.

• Give specificspecific feedback tied to observable behavior or measurable results.

• Channel feedback toward key result areaskey result areas..• Give feedback as soonsoon as possible.• Give positive feedback for improvement,improvement, not just

final results.• Focus feedback on performanceperformance,, not personalities.• Base feedback on accurateaccurate and crediblecredible

information.

8-6 Skills and Best Practices: How Skills and Best Practices: How to Make Sure Feedback Gets to Make Sure Feedback Gets

ResultsResults

Chapter Ten

Effective Groups and Effective Groups and TeamworkTeamwork

10-1a

Fundamentals of Group BehaviorFundamentals of Group Behavior

•Formal and Informal Groups

•Functions of Formal Groups

•The Group Development Process

•Group Member Roles

•Norms

Teams, Trust, and TeamworkTeams, Trust, and Teamwork

•A Team is More Than Just a Group

•Trust: A Key Ingredient in Teamwork

•Self-Managed Teams

•Virtual Teams

Chapter Ten OutlineChapter Ten Outline

10-1b

Threats to Group and Team EffectivenessThreats to Group and Team Effectiveness•Groupthink•Social Loafing

Chapter Ten Outline Chapter Ten Outline (continued)(continued)

10-3a

Figure 10-1

PerformingAdjourning

Norming

Storming

Forming

Return toIndependence

Dependence/interdependence

Independence

Tuckman’s Five-Stage TheoryTuckman’s Five-Stage Theoryof Group Developmentof Group Development

10-3b

Figure 10-1

IndividualIssues

Forming Storming Norming Performing

“How do I fit in?”

“What’s myrole here?”

“What do theothers expectme to do?”

“How can I bestperform my role?”

GroupIssues

“Why are we here?”

“Why are wefighting overwho’s incharge and whodoes what?”

“Can we agreeon roles andwork as a team?”

“Can we do thejob properly?”

Tuckman’s Five-Stage TheoryTuckman’s Five-Stage Theoryof Group Development (continued)of Group Development (continued)

10-4a

Table 10-2

Task RolesTask Roles DescriptionDescription

InitiatorInitiator Suggests new goals or ideasInformation seeker/giverInformation seeker/giver Clarifies key issuesOpinion seeker/giverOpinion seeker/giver Clarifies pertinent issuesElaborator Elaborator Promote greater understandingCoordinatorCoordinator Pulls together key ideas and suggestions

OrienterOrienter Keeps group headed toward its stated goal(s)

EvaluatorEvaluator Tests group’s accomplishments

EnergizerEnergizer Prods group to move along or to accomplish more

Procedural TechnicianProcedural Technician Performs routine duties

RecorderRecorder Performs a “group memory” function

Task and Maintenance RolesTask and Maintenance Roles

10-4b

Table 10-2

Maintenance RolesMaintenance Roles DescriptionDescription

EncouragerEncourager Fosters group solidarityHarmonizerHarmonizer Mediates conflict through reconciliation or humorCompromiserCompromiser Helps resolve conflict by meeting others”half way”Gate KeeperGate Keeper Encourages all group members to participate

Standard setterStandard setter Evaluates the quality of group

processesCommentatorCommentator Records comments on group

processes/dynamics

FollowerFollower Serves as a passive audience

Task and Maintenance Roles (cont)Task and Maintenance Roles (cont)

The Evolution of a TeamThe Evolution of a Team• A work group becomes a team when:• LeadershipLeadership becomes a shared activity.• AccountabilityAccountability shifts from strictly individual to both

individual and collective.

• The group develops its own purposepurpose or mission.

• Problem solvingProblem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity.

• EffectivenessEffectiveness is measured by the group’s collective outcomes and products.

Team:Team: “A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.”

10-6

TeamsTeams

“Getting Things Done” Sequence

• Managing Change (pages in Ch 16)

• Leadership (Ch14)

• Influence, Power, and Politics (Ch13)

• Managing Conflict (Ch11)

• Demographic CharacteristicsDemographic Characteristics- the workforce is more diverse- there is a business imperative to effectively manage diversity

• Technological AdvancementsTechnological Advancements- organizations are increasingly using technology as a means to improve productivity and market competitiveness

• Market ChangesMarket Changes- the emergence of a global economy is forcing companies to be more competitive and to do business differently- organizations are forging new partnerships and alliances aimed at creating new products and services

• Social and Political PressuresSocial and Political Pressures- society and its legislative bodies can put pressure on organizations to change the way they do business – the tobacco industry is a good example

16-2a

External ForcesExternal Forces: originate outside the organization.

Forces of ChangeForces of Change

• Human Resource Problems/ProspectsHuman Resource Problems/Prospects- employees’ needs, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, behavior, and performance are forces of change- dissatisfied employees and high levels of absenteeism and turnover are signs that change is needed

• Managerial Behavior/DecisionsManagerial Behavior/Decisions- the level of conflict between managers and their direct reports is a force for change- inappropriate leader behavior may result in employee problems requiring change- inequitable reward systems are an additional force for change

16-2b

Internal ForcesInternal Forces: originate inside the organization.

Forces of Change (continued)Forces of Change (continued)

16-3

•UnfreezingUnfreezing- Creates the motivation to change- Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and attitudes with those desired by management- Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change- Creates psychological safety

• • ChangingChanging- Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things- Helps employees learn new concepts or points of view- Role models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change

•RefreezingRefreezing- Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things- Positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired change- Coaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of change

Lewin’s Change ModelLewin’s Change Model

The leading reasons why people resist change are:The leading reasons why people resist change are:• An individual’s predisposition toward change• Surprise and fear of the unknown• Climate of mistrust• Fear of failure• Loss of status and/or job security

16-7a

Resistance to ChangeResistance to Change:: an emotional/behavioral response to real or imagined work change.

Resistance To ChangeResistance To Change

13-2a

Rational persuasionRational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts.

Inspirational appealsInspirational appeals.. Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others’ emotions, ideals, or values.

ConsultationConsultation.. Getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes.

IngratiationIngratiation. Getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery.

Personal appealsPersonal appeals. Referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request.

Nine Generic Influence TacticsNine Generic Influence Tactics

13-2b

ExchangeExchange.. Making express or implied promises and trading favors.

Coalition tacticsCoalition tactics. Getting others to support your effort to persuade someone.

PressurePressure. Demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats.

Legitimating tactics.Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on one’s authority or right, organizational rules or polices, or express or implied support from superiors.

Nine Generic Influence TacticsNine Generic Influence Tactics

Mutual respect.Openness.Trust. Mutual benefit.

13-3

Skills and Best Practices: How Skills and Best Practices: How to Turn Your Coworkers into to Turn Your Coworkers into

Strategic AlliesStrategic Allies

• Reward power:Reward power: Promising or granting rewards.

• Coercive power:Coercive power: Threats or actual punishment.

• Legitimate power:Legitimate power: Based on position or formal authority.

• Expert power:Expert power: Sharing of knowledge or information.

• Referent power:Referent power: Power of one’s personality (charisma).

13-4

Five Bases of PowerFive Bases of Power

LeadershipLeadership

Chapter Fourteen

Trait and Behavioral Theories of Trait and Behavioral Theories of LeadershipLeadership

•Trait Theory

•Behavioral Styles Theory

Situational TheoriesSituational Theories

•Fiedler’s Contingency Model

•Path-Goal Theory

•Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

14-1a

Chapter Fourteen OutlineChapter Fourteen Outline

14-2a

• Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary byvary by- intelligence- dominance- self-confidence- level of energy and activity- task-relevant knowledge

• Contemporary findings show thatContemporary findings show that- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance- people want their leaders to be credible- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.

Trait TheoryTrait Theory

14-2b

• Gender and leadershipGender and leadership

- men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively

- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women

- men and women were equally assertive

- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

Trait Theory (continued)Trait Theory (continued)

• Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.1. 1. ConsiderationConsideration:: creating mutual respect and trust with followers2. 2. Initiating StructureInitiating Structure:: organizing and defining what group members should be doing

• University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies- one style was employee centered and the other was job centered

• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people

14-3

• Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

Behavioral Styles TheoryBehavioral Styles Theory

14-5

Figure 14-1

SituationalControl

High ControlSituations

Moderate Control Situations

Low ControlSituations

Leader-memberrelations

Task Structure

Position Power

Good Good Good

High High High

Strong Weak Strong

Good Poor Poor

Low High High

Weak Strong Strong

Poor Poor

Low Low

Strong Weak

Situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Optimal Optimal LeadershipLeadership

StyleStyle

Task Motivated Task Motivated LeadershipLeadership

Relationship Relationship Motivated Motivated LeadershipLeadership

Task Task Motivated Motivated Leadership Leadership

Representation of Fiedler’s Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency ModelContingency Model

14-6

Figure 14-2

Employee CharacteristicsEmployee Characteristics- Locus of control- Task ability- Need for achievement- Experience- Need for clarity

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors- Employee’s task- Authority system- Work group

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles- Directive- Supportive- Participative- Achievement oriented

Employee AttitudesEmployee Attitudes and Behavior and Behavior- Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader- Motivation

House’s Path-Goal Theory

SellingS2

Explain decisions and provide opportunity for

clarification

ParticipatingS3

Share ideas andfacilitate in

decision making

14-7

Figure 14-3

Follower-Directed Leader-DirectedFollower-Directed Leader-Directed

LowLow

LowLow

HighHigh

HighHighLeader BehaviorLeader Behavior

Task BehaviorTask Behavior

Follower ReadinessFollower ReadinessHighHigh Moderate Moderate LowLow R4 R4 R3 R3 R2 R2

R1R1

Rela

tion

sh

ip B

eh

avio

rR

ela

tion

sh

ip B

eh

avio

r(s

up

port

ive b

eh

avio

r)(s

up

port

ive b

eh

avio

r)

DelegatingS4

Turn overresponsibility for

decisions andimplementation

TellingS1

Provide specificinstructions and closelysupervise performance

Hersey and Blanchard’s Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership TheorySituational Leadership Theory

14-4

BehaviorBehavior Recommended Recommended BehaviorsBehaviorsListenListen Intensely listen to what others have to say.

Determine the true cause of performance problems.

ExamineExamine Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved.

AssistAssist Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.

DevelopDevelopExplain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures.

EncourageEncourage Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles.

RecognizeRecognize Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.

Source: “CEO’s Need to Listen, Examine, Assist,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.

Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader EffectivenessImproving Leader Effectiveness

11-1a

Chapter Eleven OutlineChapter Eleven OutlineA Modern View of ConflictA Modern View of Conflict

•A Conflict Continuum

•Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict

•Antecedents of Conflict

•Desired Outcomes of Conflict

Major Sources of ConflictMajor Sources of Conflict

•Personality Conflicts

•Inter-group Conflict

•Cross-Cultural Conflict

11-1b

Managing ConflictManaging Conflict•Programming Functional Conflict•Alternative Styles for Handling Dysfunctional Conflict•Third-Party Interventions: Alternative Dispute Resolution

NegotiatingNegotiating•Two Basic Types of Negotiation•Added-Value Negotiation

Chapter Eleven Outline Chapter Eleven Outline (continued)(continued)

Functional conflict serves the organization’s interests while

dysfunctional conflictdysfunctional conflict threatens the organization’s interests.

Conflict:Conflict: “A process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or

negatively affected by another party.”

11-2

ConflictConflict

• Incompatible personalities or value systems.• Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.• Competition for limited resources.• Interdepartment/intergroup competition.• Inadequate communication.• Interdependent tasks.• Organizational complexity.

11-3a

Antecedents of ConflictAntecedents of Conflict

• Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules.

• Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure.• Collective decision making.• Decision making by consensus.• Unmet expectations.• Unresolved or suppressed conflict.

11-3b

Antecedents of Conflict Antecedents of Conflict (continued)(continued)

AgreementAgreement: Strive for equitable and fair agreements that last.

Stronger relationships:Stronger relationships: Build bridges of goodwill and trust for the future.

Learning:Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative problem solving.

11-4

Desired Outcomes of ConflictDesired Outcomes of Conflict

11-6

Figure 11-1

• Conflict within the group is high• There are negative interactions between groups (or between members of those groups)• Influential third-party gossip about other group is negative

• Work to eliminate specific negative interactions between groups (and members).• Conduct team building to reduce intragroup conflict and prepare employees for cross-functional teamwork.• Encourage personal friendships and good working relationships across groups and departments.• Foster positive attitudes toward members of other groups (empathy, compassion, sympathy).• Avoid or neutralize negative gossip across groups or departments.

Recommended actions:Recommended actions:Level of perceivedLevel of perceived

Inter-group conflict tendsInter-group conflict tendsto increase when:to increase when:

Minimizing Inter-group Conflict: An Minimizing Inter-group Conflict: An Updated Contact ModelUpdated Contact Model

11-8

Figure 11-2

Integrating Obliging

Dominating Avoiding

Compromising

High Low

High

Low

Con

cern

for

Oth

ers

Concern for SelfSource: MA Rahim, “A Strategy for Managing Conflict in Complex Organizations, Human Relations, January 1985, p 84. Used with author’s permission.

Five Conflict-Handling StylesFive Conflict-Handling Styles

Facilitation:Facilitation: Third party gets disputants to deal directly and constructively with each other.

Conciliation:Conciliation: Neutral third party acts as communication link between disputants.

Peer review:Peer review: Impartial co-workers hear both sides and render decision that may or may not be binding.

OmbudsmanOmbudsman:: Respected and trusted member of the organization hears grievances confidentially.

MediationMediation:: Trained third-party guides disputants toward their own solution.

Arbitration:Arbitration: Neutral third-party hears both sides in a court-like setting and renders a binding decision.

11-10

Alternative Dispute Resolution Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Techniques(ADR) Techniques