Post on 29-Aug-2018
transcript
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF HVAC AND ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS
Reese Hatridge, E.I.T. Mechanical Design Engineer Jose I Guerra, Inc B.S. Architectural Engineering, 2015 The University of Texas at Austin
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Overview
Abbreviated Presentation ~ 45 minutes - Skip any material boxed in gray - Skip any slides a gray tab at the top right
Full Presentation ~ 1 ½ hours – 2 ½ hours
- Keep slides and use as a reference
Overview
Abbreviated Presentation ~ 45 minutes - Skip any material boxed in gray - Skip any slides a gray tab at the top right
Full Presentation ~ 1 ½ hours – 2 ½ hours
- Use the full set of slides as a reference
Lecture Goals
1) Get you thinking about your thermal environment, and the principles and systems which affect it at a conceptual level 2) Piece together information you learn in other classes, with an effort to keep it simplified and relevant 3) Cover the HVAC systems you will encounter in your professional careers, emphasizing the function performed and the options available 4) Discuss the approach to designing appropriate HVAC
systems for a building
Why care about HVAC Systems?
Lighting 14%
HVAC 43%
Refrigeration 4%
Water Heating 7%
Electronics + Computers
5%
Cooking 2%
Other 25%
Energy Use in US Commercial Buildings
Lighting + Appliances +
Electronics 34%
HVAC 48%
Water Heating 18%
Energy Use in US Homes
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Why actively control temp and humidity?
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Why actively control temp and humidity?
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Why actively control temp and humidity?
- Code requirements
- Occupant health & comfort
- Protect building materials & contents
- Owner requirements
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Why actively control temp and humidity?
- Code requirements
- Occupant health & comfort
- Protect building materials & contents
- Owner requirements [11]
1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy is conserved. (Heat = Energy)
2. Entropy is always increasing. Refrigeration (Requires Work)
Heat flows from High T to Low T
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Heat Transfer
1. Conduction Heat moving through a solid
2. Convection Heat moving through a fluid
3. Radiation Heat moving (as waves) through space
Heat Transfer
1. Conduction Heat moving through a solid
2. Convection Heat moving through a fluid
3. Radiation Heat moving (as waves) through space
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Heat Transfer
1. Conduction Heat moving through a solid
2. Convection Heat moving through a fluid
3. Radiation Heat moving (as waves) through space
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Heat Transfer
1. Conduction Heat moving through a solid
2. Convection Heat moving through a fluid
3. Radiation Heat moving (as waves) through space
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Heat Transfer
1. Conduction Heat moving through a solid
2. Convection Heat moving through a fluid
3. Radiation Heat moving (as waves) through space
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Body’s Regulation of Heat
Conduction + Convection + Radiation + …
When hot: Perspiration
When cold: Shivering, epinephrine, goosebumps
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
Internal vs. External Loads
Cooling Loads What sources add heat to a space, triggering the need for cooling?
Heating Loads What sources remove heat from a space, triggering the need for heating?
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HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
Use ARE 320L_MEP Sizing Procedure at Schematic Design.pdf
- Adapt as needed to suit climate
and program(s) of your project - Systems selected are just one
solution
HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
Use Duct Sizer.xlsx Size major ductwork - Supply and Return
based on Heating/ Cooling Loads
- Outside air & Exhaust based on ASHRAE 62.1
HVAC Design Approach
1. Demands of the space? Design criteria? - Owner requirements, Codes, Architect’s vision, Acoustics, etc. 2. Climate 3. Site, Orientation, Shading, Passive options available? 4. Cooling / heating sources? - Distributed chilled water, hot water, and/or steam? - Geothermal - NOTE: Free heating a lot easier to come by than free cooling 5. System selection & Zoning -> System sizing & routing - Select systems based on building type, owner’s priorities - Group spaces with similar exposure, behavior, and requirements into zones - Estimate heating & cooling loads 6. Controls
Dehumidification / Humidification
Dehumdify because: - Condensation - Mold growth when RH > 70% - Occupant comfort - Protect materials and contents
Humidify because: - Occupant health & comfort in dry or cold climates
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Ventilation
Ventilate because: - Building pressurization (Maintain positive pressure to reduce infiltration) - Flush out contaminants, like VOCs, CO2 (Depends on outdoor air quality)
Bring in Outside Air + Exhaust / Relieve Contaminated Air
- Natural, or - Mechanical
People spend ~90% of their time indoors, where pollutant levels are 2-5 times higher.[29]
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Ventilation
Ventilation rates prescribed by Code (ASHRAE 62.1) Depends on space type, occupants, and area
Effects of under-ventilation Sick building syndrome - Headaches - Dizziness - Nausea - Itchy eyes - Respiratory issues - Fatigue
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Ventilation effects
Ventilation effects on Heating & Cooling - Why would you not want to over-ventilate a space? - When would you want to supply the building with 100% outside air? - Space loads Coil loads
Effects of under-ventilation (cont’d) - Poor cognitive performance due to increased CO2 levels Harvard study[35] tested: - Basic Activity Level - Crisis Response - Information Usage - Strategy
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Case Study: PNC Bank Tower
Location: Pittsburgh, PA Architect: Gensler Struct & MEP Engineer: Buro Happold Constructed: 2015
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Case Study: PNC Bank Tower
Energy-Efficient Features - Active Double Skin Façade to allow Natural Ventilation - Skylight box to preheat Outside Air - Dual Energy Wheel Air Handling Units - Active Chilled Beams
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle
Refrigerant lines
Typical Residential System DX Split System
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle
Refrigerant lines
Typical Residential System DX Split System
Fan
Fan
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle Typical Small Commercial System DX Rooftop Unit (RTU)
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle Typical Small Commercial System DX Rooftop Unit (RTU)
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Air Handling Unit Schematic
Typical AHU (Section View)
Indoor Air
Return Air
Exhaust Air
Outside Air
Heating Coil (Preheat)
Cooling Coil
Supply Air
Supply Fan
Exhaust Fan
Mixing Box
Filters
RA IA
E
SA
E A
O A
HC CC
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Air Handling Unit Schematic
Highly efficient Dual Energy Wheel AHU (Plan View)
EA
OA
IA
SA
R A
CC
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle Typical Large Commercial System Chiller (potentially with Cooling Towers) + Indoor Air Handling Units (AHUs)
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle Air-Cooled Chiller
Chilled Water Supply To Building (~42°F) Chilled Water Return
from Building (~56°F)
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Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle Water-Cooled Chiller
Chilled Water Supply To Building (~42°F) Chilled Water Return
from Building (~56°F)
Condenser Water to Cooling Tower (~80°F)
Condenser Water from Cooling Tower (~70°F)
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Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
[52] [53]
[54]
[55]
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Chiller & Pumps Pump, Fan Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
[56]
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
[57]
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller & Pumps, Fan
[49]
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water
Chilled Water (~63°F in chilled
beam)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
[58]
[59] [60]
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water
Chilled Water (~63°F in chilled
beam)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Chiller & Pumps, Fan
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
[51]
[61] [61]
Forced Air Radiant Forced Air + Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is cooled by flushing it out with cold supply air.
Typically 55°F – 65°F.
Space is cooled by a chilled water coil in the space, absorbing heat and creating convective flows.
Space is cooled by cold supply air, as well as a chilled water
coil in the space.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Passive Chilled Beams, Chilled Sails, Radiant Floor
Room Device Location:
Active Chilled Beams
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Ceiling
Devices Which Can be Used to Cool Primary Air:
Evaporative Cooler
Cooling Coil Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Cooling Medium: Water (~70°F)
Exhaust Air Stream
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F at unit, ~63°F
in chilled beam)
Chilled Water (~63°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Pump, Fan Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Systems: Cooling
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
[62] [63]
Mechanical Cooling Desiccants Approach:
Description: Supply air is dehumidified by cooling it down
to ~55°F, and then reheating as needed Supply air is dehumidified by running it
across a desiccant-coated surface
Applications: Most buildings in warm and humid climates
-Spaces with extreme humidity (i.e. indoor pools) or extreme
dehumidification demands (i.e. freezers) - Supply air in chilled beam systems
(since they only cool and do not help to dehumidify the space.)
Systems: Dehumidification
Devices Which Can be Used to Dry Primary Air:
Drying Medium:
Necessary Equipment:
Cooling Coil
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Desiccant Wheel or Energy Wheel
Exhaust Air Stream
Fan
Mechanical Cooling Desiccants Approach:
Description: Supply air is dehumidified by cooling it down
to ~55°F, and then reheating as needed Supply air is dehumidified by running it
across a desiccant-coated surface
Applications: Most buildings in warm and humid climates
-Spaces with extreme humidity (i.e. indoor pools) or extreme
dehumidification demands (i.e. freezers) - Supply air in chilled beam systems
(since they only cool and do not help to dehumidify the space.)
Systems: Dehumidification
Devices Which Can be Used to Dry Primary Air:
Drying Medium:
Necessary Equipment:
Cooling Coil
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Desiccant Wheel or Energy Wheel
Exhaust Air Stream
Fan
[64]
Mechanical Cooling Desiccants Approach:
Description: Supply air is dehumidified by cooling it down
to ~55°F, and then reheating as needed Supply air is dehumidified by running it
across a desiccant-coated surface
Applications: Most buildings in warm and humid climates
-Spaces with extreme humidity (i.e. indoor pools) or extreme
dehumidification demands (i.e. freezers) - Supply air in chilled beam systems
(since they only cool and do not help to dehumidify the space.)
Systems: Dehumidification
Devices Which Can be Used to Dry Primary Air:
Drying Medium:
Necessary Equipment:
Cooling Coil
Refrigerant (~42°F)
Chilled Water (~42°F)
Compressor & Condensing Unit, Fan
Cooling Tower for Chiller
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow)
Chiller or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Desiccant Wheel or Energy Wheel
Exhaust Air Stream
Fan
[65]
[66]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas or Biofuels
Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
Electric Coil
Electric Coil
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
[52] [53]
[54]
[55]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas or Biofuels
Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
Electric Coil
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas or Biofuels
Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
[67] [68]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas or Biofuels
Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
[69]
[70]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Electric Coil
Power, Fan
Elec Resistance
[49]
Mechanical Cooling = Vapor Compression Cycle
Refrigerant lines
Typical Residential System DX Split System
[38]
[39]
[40]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Electric Coil
Power, Fan
Elec Resistance
VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery [49]
[71]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Electric Coil
Power, Fan
Elec Resistance
[49]
[72]
[73]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas or Biofuels
Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
Electric Coil [74]
Forced Air Radiant Approach:
Description: Space is heated by flushing it out with warm supply air.
Typically 85°F – 100°F.
Space is heated by a hot water coil in the space, radiating heat to everything it sees, and warming
the air, producing convective flows.
Room Device: Air Diffusers Fin Tube Radiators, Radiant Floor, etc.
Room Device Location:
Ceiling, Wall, or Floor Wall, or Floor
Devices Which Can be Used to Heat Primary Air:
Gas Furnace Heat Exchanger or Energy Wheel
Heating Medium: Natural Gas Exhaust Air Stream
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Necessary Equipment:
High-efficient Upgrade:
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps
Furnace, Fan Fan
Condensing Boiler
Systems: Heating
Heating Coil
Refrigerant (Heat Pump)
Heating Water (~130-180°F)
Compressor & Condenser, Fan
Condensing Boiler VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) w/ Heat Recovery
Boiler or Ground-source Heat Pump
& Pumps, Fan
Elec Resistance
Power, Fan
Electric Coil
[75]
[76]
[60]
Adiabatic Humidification Isothermal Humidification Approach:
Description: Air is humidified by injecting water (same as
evaporative cooling cools air) Air is humidified by injecting steam (does
not affect air temperature)
Applications: - Buildings in very cold or dry climates - Spaces that require precise humidity control
(i.e. Museums, Data Centers, Medical buildings, etc.)
Systems: Humidification
Devices Which Can be Used to Humidify Air:
- Evaporative Cooler - Air/Water Atomizer
- Ultrasonic Humidifier
-Steam Injection (Gas or Electric)
- Infrared Humidifier
[77] [78]
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
[36]
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
[79]
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
[80]
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
[81]
Natural Ventilation Mixing Ventilation Approach:
Description: Use operable building openings
(windows, chimneys, etc.) to ventilate the space, relying on
differential pressures.
Systems: Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Room Device Location:
Near the Ceiling
Dilute and flush out contaminants in the building by supplying high
volumes of outside air at a high velocity to cause mixing of the air.
Gently push contaminants out of the breathing zone by supplying
moderate volumes of outside air at a low velocity, near the floor.
Near the Floor
Room Device: Operable Windows
Air Diffusers Air Diffusers
Supply Air Velocity:
Supply Air Temperature:
Near the Floor
________ ~350 – 500 ft/min ~30- 40 ft/min
~55 - 95°F Use when OA < ~62°F
And RH < 60% ~63 - 75°F
Outside Air Requirements for a 10’x10’x9’ office with 2 occupants:
Outside Air Requirements for a 50’x30’x9’ classroom with 40 occupants:
_________ ~1.1 – 1.3 ACH (Air Changes/Hr)
~0.9 ACH
~1.1 ACH ~1.3 - 1.6 ACH _________
vs.
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
[36]
[61]
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
[47]
[82] [83]
[47]
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
N
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
[84]
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
[85] [86]
How to Save Energy through HVAC Design
- Take advantage of free and nearly free heating / cooling - Economizer, Natural Ventilation, Heat Recovery, Geothermal - Bigger = better (generally) - Efficiency gains with increased scale of systems - More efficient systems take up more space (heat recovery, economizer capability, larger ducts and piping, smooth transitions in ducts) - Zone intelligently - Decouple ventilation from heating & cooling if serving multiple zones (if
feasible) - Use Variable control, Staging to avoid on/off cycling - Use Active control systems - Daylighting controls, Occupant sensors, CO2 sensors
[87] [88]
How to Save Energy: Operations & Decision Making
Systems Require - Proper commissioning - Proper maintenance - Educated (and dedicated) Owners, Designers, & Occupants
[89]
How to Save Energy: Operations & Decision Making
Systems Require - Proper commissioning - Proper maintenance - Educated (and dedicated) Owners, Designers, & Occupants
Firs
t Cos
t + O
pera
ting
Cos
ts ($
)
Time (years)
High efficiency technology Standard technology
[90] [91]
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