Post on 23-Dec-2015
transcript
History of Irrigation 1History of Irrigation 1
Ancient irrigation
At least 6 major irrigation based civilizations arosebetween 2000 and
6000 years ago:In Mesopotamia:Sumerians, Babylonians and AssyriansThe Egyptians formed the longest lasting irrigation societyThe Indus Valley inpresent day PakistanThe Yellow River Basin
in China
At least 6 major irrigation based civilizations arosebetween 2000 and
6000 years ago:In Mesopotamia:Sumerians, Babylonians and AssyriansThe Egyptians formed the longest lasting irrigation societyThe Indus Valley inpresent day PakistanThe Yellow River Basin
in China
Harappan Civilization Harappan Civilization
The Indus Valley
Length: 3.200 kmOriginating in the Tibetan Plateau
Civilizations:Harappan c. 3300–1300 BCIndo-Aryans c.1700 - 600 BC
The Shaduf
The people of Indus prospered on the foundations of an agriculture based system of irrigation and fertility, maintained by silt-bearing floods
Indus valleyIndus valley
Ancient irrigation history using a network of inundation canals aligned with natural drainage canals
Based on maintaining fertility by silt bearing floods
The canals flowed for 4-5 months during the monsoon – then as drainage canals
They did not cause water logging
Ancient irrigation history using a network of inundation canals aligned with natural drainage canals
Based on maintaining fertility by silt bearing floods
The canals flowed for 4-5 months during the monsoon – then as drainage canals
They did not cause water logging
Later irrigation based cultures arose in the western hemisphere, central Mexico, Peru and the US Southwest
All reflected a common threat of vulnerability and environmental deterioration.
Hohokam A.D. 300-900 build the first large-scale irrigation in the US
Later irrigation based cultures arose in the western hemisphere, central Mexico, Peru and the US Southwest
All reflected a common threat of vulnerability and environmental deterioration.
Hohokam A.D. 300-900 build the first large-scale irrigation in the US
Hohokam - Arizona
Hohokam - ArizonaHohokam - Arizona
Advanced canal network along the Gila River dug out over centuries
The biggest canal 30 feet wide, 7 feet deep and 8 mile long enough to irrigate 8.000 acres
Could tap the entire spring run-off, channeling it to their fields high above the riverbed
As in Mesopotamia this resulted in increased salinity and finally to abandonment of the area
Advanced canal network along the Gila River dug out over centuries
The biggest canal 30 feet wide, 7 feet deep and 8 mile long enough to irrigate 8.000 acres
Could tap the entire spring run-off, channeling it to their fields high above the riverbed
As in Mesopotamia this resulted in increased salinity and finally to abandonment of the area
The Indus Valley: Indus River
The Nile
China: Yellow River
Yangtze River United States: Colorado River Columbia River Groundwater: Ogallala Aquifer
Edwards Aquifer
Irrigation’s modern era
Major irrigation sources
Colonization - technologyColonization - technology
Colonial powers wanted increase in production and export to mother country
Change to European technology allowed bigger dams and longer and bigger canals
Technology implemented in a different environment, causing problems
In England big and straight canals not a problem, but in Pakistan and India problems with siltation and erosion of canals a major issue
Colonial powers wanted increase in production and export to mother country
Change to European technology allowed bigger dams and longer and bigger canals
Technology implemented in a different environment, causing problems
In England big and straight canals not a problem, but in Pakistan and India problems with siltation and erosion of canals a major issue
Colonization - technologyColonization - technology The new irrigation technology disrupted
many local small-scale irrigation systems which had functioned for centuries:
Haveli system: Rainwater during the wet season was held in
fields by earth embankments 2 to 12 hectares.
At beginning of dry season they drain the fields and plant the crop – water enough in soil profile to grow the crop
Tank (dugout) system Store rainwater and run-off from wet
seasons 2 million tanks in India irrigate 3.5 mil. ha
The new irrigation technology disrupted many local small-scale irrigation systems which had functioned for centuries:
Haveli system: Rainwater during the wet season was held in
fields by earth embankments 2 to 12 hectares.
At beginning of dry season they drain the fields and plant the crop – water enough in soil profile to grow the crop
Tank (dugout) system Store rainwater and run-off from wet
seasons 2 million tanks in India irrigate 3.5 mil. ha
The Indus - Pakistan
Located on the river Indus 50 miles northwest of Islamabad. Was completed in 1974. It is the world’s largest earth and rock-filled dam. Sedimentation has reduced its capacity by 30%
The Indus in PakistanThe Indus in Pakistan
With the Tabela Dam on the Indus and Mangla Dam on the Jhelum river and associated canal system the Indus Basin Irrigation system became the world largest contiguous irrigation network – 14 million hectares
Accounts for 6% of worlds irrigated area
With the Tabela Dam on the Indus and Mangla Dam on the Jhelum river and associated canal system the Indus Basin Irrigation system became the world largest contiguous irrigation network – 14 million hectares
Accounts for 6% of worlds irrigated area
The Nile
The Blue Nile
The White Nile
River Atbara
The NileThe Nile
Irrigation’s greatest challenge: Sustain tens of millions of people in a land that gets virtually no rain
A narrow strip of green and life in a sea of desert
This strip and the fertile delta has supported Egypt’s civilization for millennia
But the type of irrigation that sustain its people today is markedly different from its past – driven by population growth
Irrigation’s greatest challenge: Sustain tens of millions of people in a land that gets virtually no rain
A narrow strip of green and life in a sea of desert
This strip and the fertile delta has supported Egypt’s civilization for millennia
But the type of irrigation that sustain its people today is markedly different from its past – driven by population growth
The Nile:Length 6.700 km
Source:The White Nile: Lake Victoria, UgandaThe Blue Nile: Lake Tan, EthiopiaRiver Atbara
Major Dams:
Roseires DamSennar DamAswan High DamOwen Falls Dam
Owens Falls in Uganda
Uganda, as Ethiopia, is predominantly using their dams on the Nile for hydropower and not irrigation. However the potential is there – could cause conflict with Egypt
Sennar Dam in SudanBuild in 1920,45 m high and3 km longSupply irrigation water to 60% of Sudan’s agriculture
The NileThe Nile Prior to 1800, cultivated area and population
peaked about 100 A.D. at which time Egypt supplied the Roman empire with vast quantities of grain
Flood based irrigation only supported crop production 1/3 of the year - one winter crop
Build large flat-bottomed basins for growing crops along the river bank
They sluiced water into these basins when the river was in flood using simple gate structures
Water left on fields 40 to 60 days and then drained back into the river downstream
Plenty of water so salt never built up in the soil
Prior to 1800, cultivated area and population peaked about 100 A.D. at which time Egypt supplied the Roman empire with vast quantities of grain
Flood based irrigation only supported crop production 1/3 of the year - one winter crop
Build large flat-bottomed basins for growing crops along the river bank
They sluiced water into these basins when the river was in flood using simple gate structures
Water left on fields 40 to 60 days and then drained back into the river downstream
Plenty of water so salt never built up in the soil
The flow in the canals was strong enough to prevent siltation. Siltation in the basins beneficial as fertilizer
Ditches and canals were short and irrigation systems very local
Early 19th century the population exploded and crop production started to fall short of needs
In 1861 a series of diversion dams build across the Nile north of Cairo followed by a number of other dams. Aswan Dam completed by British engineers in 1902, expanded twice by 1934
This allowed two to three crops a year and fundamentally changed irrigation in Egypt
The flow in the canals was strong enough to prevent siltation. Siltation in the basins beneficial as fertilizer
Ditches and canals were short and irrigation systems very local
Early 19th century the population exploded and crop production started to fall short of needs
In 1861 a series of diversion dams build across the Nile north of Cairo followed by a number of other dams. Aswan Dam completed by British engineers in 1902, expanded twice by 1934
This allowed two to three crops a year and fundamentally changed irrigation in Egypt
The NileThe Nile
The NileThe Nile
The River did not flood anymore – irrigation depends on perennial canal irrigation only
Soil constantly moist all year round Even with low salinity content this change has
caused a build up of salt as water evaporates In 1928 water scholars warned about the threat
of salinization of the land and that the big dams would hold bag the silt that had replenished the fertility of the floodplain for millennia
Trend in cotton yields already suggested decline in soil fertility
The River did not flood anymore – irrigation depends on perennial canal irrigation only
Soil constantly moist all year round Even with low salinity content this change has
caused a build up of salt as water evaporates In 1928 water scholars warned about the threat
of salinization of the land and that the big dams would hold bag the silt that had replenished the fertility of the floodplain for millennia
Trend in cotton yields already suggested decline in soil fertility
The Blue Nile flowing down from theEthiopian Plateau rainy season April to October
Resolution from the International Space Station
The Aswan High Damtransformed Egypt’s irrigated agriculture from a seasonal system to a perennial one
The Nile Delta
The Delta is sinking:Northeast corner by 5 mm a yearNorthwest corner by 3 mm a yearA former delta village is now 2 km out to sea
The Yellow River, ChinaThe Yellow River, China
Yellow River
Animaqing Peak
Animaqing Mountain
Bayabkala Mountain
Bayankala Mountain
Dari Yellow RiverHetao Irrigation Area
Hetao Plain
Heisan Gorge
The FloodHukou fall
Mountain Grassland
In 1949 irrigation was depressed after the war
Still 19.5 mil ha under irrigation, about the same as India at the time
Millions of peasants set to work on repairing and expanding systems
Over next 35 years build more than 83,000 reservoirs, repaired or constructed 177,000 km of dikes, sunk 2.3 mil wells and brought 29 mil more hectares under irrigation
In 1949 irrigation was depressed after the war
Still 19.5 mil ha under irrigation, about the same as India at the time
Millions of peasants set to work on repairing and expanding systems
Over next 35 years build more than 83,000 reservoirs, repaired or constructed 177,000 km of dikes, sunk 2.3 mil wells and brought 29 mil more hectares under irrigation
Peoples Victory Irrigation district was completed in 1952
The first of more than 100 irrigation districts in Henan and Shnadong provinces over next decade
By 1990 4.4 mil hectares irrigated
Nearly a third as much as the Yangtze River
Peoples Victory Irrigation district was completed in 1952
The first of more than 100 irrigation districts in Henan and Shnadong provinces over next decade
By 1990 4.4 mil hectares irrigated
Nearly a third as much as the Yangtze River
Started in 1980 - the Great Man-Made river project is the largest engineering scheme currently being carried out in the world.The 4 meter diameter pipe is about 1600 Km long and transfers 6.5 million cubic meters of water/day
Great Man-Made River Project
Rapid development of coastalAreas and increased populationHave placed a severe strain on the coastal water supply.
Some now attributes the drying of the Ubari Lakes and various water holes to the side effect of the project
Colorado River Basin
Colorado River Basin
Competition for water severe – constant litigation over water
Without Colorado River water no Imperial Valley
Competition for water severe – constant litigation over water
Without Colorado River water no Imperial Valley
Flowed into gulf of Mexico, but not anymore
1922 Colorado River Compact - 7 states
1928–36 construction of Hoover Dam
First high span dam major accomplishment
Followed by many others
Parker Dam supply LA and San Diego
1963 US Supreme court made explicit allocations to each state and Indians
Prompted the Central Arizona project - mountain tunnel and aqueduct to supply Phoenix and Tucson
Flowed into gulf of Mexico, but not anymore
1922 Colorado River Compact - 7 states
1928–36 construction of Hoover Dam
First high span dam major accomplishment
Followed by many others
Parker Dam supply LA and San Diego
1963 US Supreme court made explicit allocations to each state and Indians
Prompted the Central Arizona project - mountain tunnel and aqueduct to supply Phoenix and Tucson
Columbia River Basin
Columbia River Basin
Unique hydrology and gradient
Second largest run-off in US
Given much of the wealth to the N.W. - Minerals and fertile soils
Half the hydroelectric energy in the US
Irrigate 7.8 mil. acres – arid part of Washington, Oregon and Idaho: wheat, corn, potatoes, peas, alfalfa etc
Unique hydrology and gradient
Second largest run-off in US
Given much of the wealth to the N.W. - Minerals and fertile soils
Half the hydroelectric energy in the US
Irrigate 7.8 mil. acres – arid part of Washington, Oregon and Idaho: wheat, corn, potatoes, peas, alfalfa etc
Columbia River basinColumbia River basin Columbia Basin Project turned the desert area of
central Washington into another US bread basked Irrigates 0.5 mil. acres and can expand to 1.1 mil The biggest hydroelectric power capacity in the US Individual irrigation authorities regulate timing and
volume of extraction locally But the cumulative impact is felt downstream Some areas more affected than others – The effect
on Snake River more severe than main stream Minidoka project – thousands of miles of canals
supply 1.1 mil. acres
Columbia Basin Project turned the desert area of central Washington into another US bread basked
Irrigates 0.5 mil. acres and can expand to 1.1 mil The biggest hydroelectric power capacity in the US Individual irrigation authorities regulate timing and
volume of extraction locally But the cumulative impact is felt downstream Some areas more affected than others – The effect
on Snake River more severe than main stream Minidoka project – thousands of miles of canals
supply 1.1 mil. acres
Groundwater recharge 1960 - 1990
Groundwater recharge 1960 - 1990
Only 2.5% of the water available is freshwater. Of that approximately 68.9% is locked in glaciers and permanent snow cover, and 30.8% is groundwater – many countries therefore rely on it. Only 0.3% is in rivers and lakes
GroundwaterGroundwater
An important resource 2 billion people depend on it for drinking 40% of the worlds food is produced by it But little attention was given to it until
recently – out of sight out of mind Pollution and depletion of rivers are obvious
and reported in media, while depletion and pollution of groundwater can be hidden for years
Also provide ‘base flow’ for many rivers
An important resource 2 billion people depend on it for drinking 40% of the worlds food is produced by it But little attention was given to it until
recently – out of sight out of mind Pollution and depletion of rivers are obvious
and reported in media, while depletion and pollution of groundwater can be hidden for years
Also provide ‘base flow’ for many rivers
Groundwater Aquifers:Groundwater Aquifers: North America: Ogallala Aquifer The Edwards Aquifer The High Plain Aquifer South America: Amazon Basin Aquifers Puelches Aquifer Africa: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer The Northwest Sahara Aquifer System Congo Basin Asia: Erdos Basin Aquifer Huang-Hai-Hai Plain Aquifer Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Arabien Shield: Mukalla Aquifer Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Australia: Great Artesian Basin Aquifer
North America: Ogallala Aquifer The Edwards Aquifer The High Plain Aquifer South America: Amazon Basin Aquifers Puelches Aquifer Africa: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer The Northwest Sahara Aquifer System Congo Basin Asia: Erdos Basin Aquifer Huang-Hai-Hai Plain Aquifer Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Arabien Shield: Mukalla Aquifer Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Australia: Great Artesian Basin Aquifer
Populations in mega-cities depending on groundwaterPopulations in mega-cities depending on groundwater
Typically groundwater would provide at least 25 % of the water supply to such a city.
Groundwater for townsGroundwater for towns
Even more widespread in smaller towns and rural communities
E.g. in the Huang-Huai-Hai aquifer system in China: 160 mil. people
1/3 of Asia’s drinking water In the US more than 95% of the
rural population
Even more widespread in smaller towns and rural communities
E.g. in the Huang-Huai-Hai aquifer system in China: 160 mil. people
1/3 of Asia’s drinking water In the US more than 95% of the
rural population
Extent of groundwater used for drinking water in Asia and
Latin America
Extent of groundwater used for drinking water in Asia and
Latin America