COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Matt Blazek

What is Cognitive Psychology? Study of the structure &

functions of the mind Mind: element of a person

that enables a person to be aware of the world

Cognitive neuroscience: combination of brain & cognitive processes

Cognition

All the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. (Neisser, 1967).

Requires the use of mental representations Individual differences based on experience

Principles of Cognitive Psych1. Mental processes guide behavior2. The mind can be studied scientifically3. Cognitive processes are influenced by

social and cultural factors

Principle #1

Mental processes guide behavior Bottom-up processing: sensory input Top-down processing: memory

Behaviors are the result Observable actions of an organism

Principle #1 cont.

Mindset (Dweck, 2007) Stereotyping &

discrimination Memory

Reconstructive in nature False memories

Perception Cognitive process that

interprets and organizes sensory information

Principle #2

The mind can be studied scientifically Laboratory

Experiments CAT scan fMRI

Natural Case Studies

Cognition is necessary in daily life Applied research

Principle #3

Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors Effect of culture on memory (Bartlett ,1932)

Memory is subject to distortions Misattribution, suggestibility, bias

Whorpf (1956) Hypothesis

Linguistic determinism Language impose different conceptions

of reality Get ready for TOK!

AKA- Concepts

Schema Theory

Schemas

Mental representation of knowledge Coined by Bartlett (1932)

Cognitive schema Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and

expectations about the word TOK Question: In what ways, if at all, do

schemas alter our understanding and perception of the world?

Cognitive Schemas

Organize information about the world Can be linked to form systems Used for pattern recognition Help predict the future based on the past Represent knowledge

Practice

Construct a schema for the beach.

Beach

Schema Theory and Memory Three stages

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Encoding

Transforming sensory information into memory

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Storage

Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory May be lost or consolidated (brought

together)

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Retrieval

Accessing and using the stored information Remembering

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Is schema theory valuable?

Uses Categorizing Inferences Memory distortions Stereotyping/prejudice

Limits How are schemas formed? How do schemas work? Is it too vague?

TOK Link 1

To what extent can we trust our perception to represent reality?

TOK Link 2

To what extent does past experience allow us to predict the future?

Working Memory

Models

Models attempt to describe complex phenomena Multi-store model Working-memory model

Multi-store Model: Background Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), among others An information processing model Basis of the working memory model

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Basic Assumptions

1. Memory consists of separate stores2. Memory processes are sequential

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Basic Processes1. Attention2. Coding3. Rehearsal

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Sensory Memory Related to the different senses

Modality specific Very short- a few seconds Very little makes it to STM

Selective Attention

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Short-term Memory (STM)

Limited capacity About seven items 6-12 seconds

Requires attention and rehearsal Practice

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Long-term Memory (LTM)

Attended and rehearsed information is encoded

Accessing encoded information is retrieval May be distorted

Sensory

Memory

Short-term

Memory

Long-term

Memory

Selecti

ve

Attenti

on

Retriev

al

Encodi

ng Sensor

y

InputDecay

Loss

Displacement

Rehearsal

Multi-store Model: Problems? Too simplistic Early idea

Limited information Others?

Working Memory

Working Memory: Central Executive

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Based on multi-store model

Believe STM is more than one store

Working Memory: STM

Episodic buffer Temporary and

passive display No processing

Phonological loop Articulatory

control system Phonological store

Visuospatial sketchpad Inner eye

Working Memory: Evidence

Dual-task research Interference tasks

Attempting to complete two tasks creates interference

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Reading and

rehearsing numbers

Working Memory: Evaluation

Active storage & processing in STM

Multi-tasking is possible With impairment

Pickering & Gathercole (2001) Problems with

working memory impair learning

Working Memory: Evaluation

Holmes et al. (2008) Ability to perform on

visual tasks is linked to mathematics performance

Eysenck (1988) Individual differences in

WM may be related to intelligence

Supported by Hambrick & Meinz (2011), Meinz et al. (2012), Unsworth, Shrock, & Engle et al. (2004)

Memory & the Brain

Biological Factors in Memory: Kandel

Learning results in changes to synapses, creating memories

Changes to or strengthening of connections results in neural networks Neurons linked for a particular task,

memory, etc. Lesioning

Cutting of brain tissue

Structure of LTM

Explicit Memory

One of two major LTM systems AKA Declarative

Memory Facts Conscious

retrieval Two Subsystems

Semantic Episodic

Semantic Memory

The “What” of your memory

General knowledge E.g. – Washington

D.C. is the capital of the United States.

Episodic Memory

The “When” of memory

Personal experience E.g. – I went to

Greece for a wedding in 2009.

Implicit Memory

Second major LTM system AKA Non-

declarative memory

Uncouncious memories

Two subsystems Procedural Emotional

Procedural Memory

The “How to do” of memory

Skills, habits, etc. E.g. – Kicking a

soccer ball.

Emotional Memory

The “How it felt” of memory

Not clearly understood

Emotional state May be linked

with limbic system

E.g. – I was excited when I climbed Mt. Olympus.

The Brain and Memory

Hippocampus Role in formation

of explicit memories

Damage prevents formation of new explicit memories

Amygdala Emotional

memories PTSD – emotions

difficult to forget

Brain Damage & Memory

The case of Clive Wearing

Oliver Sacks (2007) wrote about this case CW contracts herpes encephalitis Cannot form new memories

Clean slate every few seconds Suffered from amnesia

Anterograde Retrograde

Implicit memory intact Played music Emotional attachment

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories Does not impact existing memory

More like Drew Barrymore Still have old skills, facts, etc.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall old memories Can create new memories

But what about recalling new memories? Causes of both types include

Infection Trauma Drug use/abuse

Cultural Factors

Cross-Cultural Research

Traditionally focused on Western Culture Expanding to compare East – West

People perform differently on different tasks

Memory Strategies

Cole & Scribner (1974) US and Kpelle of Liberia

Identified relevant words to test Differences in problem solving &

remembering School increased recall of items in

categories Those who did not attend did not improve

with age

Cultural Context

What you learn & how you think impacted by culture

Internet & globalization has lessened the impact

Education systems are a reflection of culture

Chunking & Narratives

School children utilized chunking Grouping information into units Rehearsal

Using narratives improved recall for both groups Narratives utilize a story Chunking used by both groups

Narratives supported by Rogoff & Wadell (1982) Mayan children

TOK Culture Link #1

If learning is culturally mediated, what value is there in studying how people learn?

TOK Culture Link #2

To what extent can we trust the conclusions of psychological research to generalize to other cultures?

TOK Culture Link #3

If memory is distorted and culturally dependent, how can we verify, if at all, the validity of our knowledge? Can we be certain?

Reliability of Memory

Nature of Memory

Reconstructive in nature Active processing of information to make

sense of the world Biases impact reconstruction

Weakness of eye-witness testimony

Repression

Freud believed forgetting was due to repression Unconcious mechanism to keep

unacceptable memories hidden One of his defense mechanisms

Will still have dreams involving negative event

Therapy will recover these memories Are these memories true?

False Memories

To what extent can we trust ‘recovered’ memories?

Memories may be created due to events after the ‘original’ False memories

Elizabeth Loftus (2002) Washington sniper What color was the van?

Serial Reproduction

Bartlett (1932) Remembering

Memory is reconstructive Schemas influence recall Reproducing a story one person at a time

Telephone game Over subsequent reproductions:

Shorter Remain coherent More convential

Reconstructing the Past

Bartlett (1932) People reconstruct memory

to fit in existing schemas Greater complexity =

greater distortion Efforts after meaning

Attempting to find meaningful patterns

Memory is an imaginative reconstruction experience

Eyewitness Testimony

Elizabeth Loftus (begins in 1970s; Loftus & Palmer, 1974)

Nature of questions influences memory How tall was that man? Will you describe the height of the person you

saw? Single words alter recall How fast were the cars going when they

______ into each other? Bumped, collided, contacted, hit, smashedSmashe

dCollided Bumped Hit Contact

ed

40.8 39.3 38.1 34.0 31.8

Accident Test #2

Was there broken glass? Smashed: 32% Hit: 14% Control: 6%

There was no broken glass False memories are possible Ecological validity (Yuille &

Cutshall (1986) Cultural bias Question bias Skill bias

Research Methods

PET Scans & Cognition

Positron Emission Tomography

Can measure glucose consumption Cellular level changes

Alzheimer’s Early reduction in

hippocampus metabolism Mosconi (2005) Needs replication

MRI Scans & Cognition

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Creates 3-D picture fMRI

Detects changes in oxygen use

More active areas of the brain use more oxygen

May also help detect Alzheimer’s early

Kilts (2003) used to investigate product preferences Advanced marketing

Problem Solving & Heuristics

Trial & Error v Algorithms

Trial & error problem solving Edison & the light bulb

Algorithms Methodical, logical rule Guaranteed method to solve problem

Option #3: Heuristics

Heuristics Simple thinking strategy Quick judgments Efficient Error-prone

SPLOYOCHYG 907,200 possible permutations

Insight

Sudden flashes of inspiration May be called intuition

The pieces just ‘fit’ Burst of activity in right

temporal lobe May be part of humor

Sherlock Holmes Hunters

Obstacles to Problem Solving #1 Confirmation bias (Wason, 1960)

Searching only for evidence that confirms hypothesis

What rule was used to create the following set of numbers? 2, 4, 6 Create solutions- I will confirm or deny their

conformity Only rule may be proposed

We seek evidence to verify rather than refute

Obstacles to Problem Solving #2 Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

Mental set Tendency to approach a problem in a

particular way Usually has been successful

Functional fixedness Only thinking in term of the ‘normal’

function

Heuristics (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)

Representativeness heuristic Judging likelihood based on how well it

matches a prototype Ignores other relevant factors

Short, slim, & likes to read poetry More likely to be: professor or truck driver

Availability heuristic Estimating likelihood based upon availability

in memory Ex. – Occurrence of ‘k’ as first or third letter Casinos

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge I am 98% certain that the population of New Zealand is

between ___ & ___. 1/3 wrong (Kahneman & Taversky, 1979)

Oh, Hitler, why Russia? How long will it take you to write your critique?

Submit estimate & document hours Students routinely underestimate (Buehler et al., 1994)

Overconfidence increases happiness, make decisions easier, seem more credible (Baumeister, 1989) Can learn to be more realistic with feedback (Fischhoff,

1982)

Framing & Belief

Framing The way an issue is posed Significantly impacts decisions &

judgements Belief bias

Tendency of preexisting beliefs to distort logical thinking

Alters validity judgments Belief perseverance

Clinging to initial conceptions after basis is rejected

TOK & Problem Solving

How, if at all, does the overconfidence theory help us understand the our knowledge?

Cognition & Emotion

What are Emotions?

Not necessarily a conscious process Appraisal of situation

Interpretation Multiple components

Components of Emotions

Physiological changes Autonomic & endocrine systems

Subjective Feeling Happy, sad, etc.

Associated behavior Smile, cry, etc.

AKA – Physiological

Biological Factors in Emotion

The Emotional Brain

Amygdala is critical for emotional memories

Hormone release influences memory Adrenaline

The Emotional Brain LeDoux (1999)

Two emotion pathways Short route Long route

Short Route v Long Route

Short route Thalamus to amygdala

Long route Thalamus to sensory cortex/hippocampus

to amygdala Involves brainstem

Both help activate the ‘fight or flight’ response

AKA – Subjective Feelings

Cognitive Factors in Emotion

Appraisal

Evaluations related to how the situation will impact personal well-being Lazarus (1975)

Positive & negative emotions Both are responses to stressors

Experience of stress can be moderated through appraisal Lazarus & Folkman (1984)

Coping Strategies

Folkman & Lazarus (1988) Problem-focused coping

Change the situation or problem Emotion-focused coping

Handle emotions Does not address circumstances of stress

Evidence of Appraisal

Speisman et al. (1964) Emotions can be altered by manipulating

the circumstances Interpretation influences stress

Does this have ecological validity?

Flashbulb Theory

Arousal & Memory

LeDoux (1999) Arousal of emotions can facilitate memory

Emotions influence perception May not be accurate

Flashbulb Memory

Brown & Kulik (1977) Emotional memory that is vivid and

detailed Seem to be recorded like a photograph

flash JFK, MLK, RFK assassinations were

remembered vividly May be neural mechanism

Neuroscience confirms emotions facilitate memory

Doubting Neisser

Importance of event may not be known when it occurs Rehearsal of important events strengthens

memory Flashbulb memory is merely a schema for

the event Neisser (1982)

Neisser & Harsch (1992) Challenger explosion 40% had memory distortion after two

yeasrs

Attitudes & Beliefs

Talarico & Rubin (2003) Greater confidence with emotion Accuracy not improved

Breckler (1994) Current attitudes & beliefs influence recall

about blood donation Holmberg & Holmes (1994)

Current negative relationship alters perception of past interactions

Happiness

Happiness & Economics

Happiness is the sum of positive emotions minus the sum of negative emotions Bentham (1790)

Pleasure and the absence of pain Actions that promote happiness

Menger & Keynes Government should play in role in

happiness

What is Happiness?

Happiness may be a cultural construct Weiner

Up to 50% of happiness is genetic Lyubomirsky (2001)

Cognitive Factors in Happiness

Does Wealth Bring Happiness? Research does not support this

assumption What may account for this?

Social comparison theory (Festinger) Assess yourself in relation to others

Level of aspiration theory (Rotter) Evaluate what you will gain and how likely

it is to achieve General expectancy

Discrepancy Between Wealth & Happiness

1/3 of Americans are happy Steady since 1950s Myers & Diener (1995)

Upward comparison Leads to dissatisfaction Hagerty (2003)

Relative deprivation Envy (Merton & Kitt, 1950)

What Increases Happiness?

It is ‘normal’ to believe the future will be happier Media Success + money = happiness

Not reality Satisfaction with salary brings happiness

Johnson & Kruger (2006) Comparison to others reduces happiness

The Illusory Correlation

Faulty associations May be related to happiness & wealth

Conway, di Fazio, & Mayman (1999) Belief that high status person is:

Happier Less angry Less depressed Less fearful Same in love

Sociocultural Factors in Happiness

The Key to Happiness

Happiness can be achieved through training of mind and heart, reshaping attitudes and outlook Dalai Llama, Art of Happiness (1998)

State of mind is more important than circumstances

Compassion is the basis of happiness Empathy

Being able to understand others

Bhutan or Qatar?

Qatar is one of the richest countries on earth Not one of the happiest countries

Bhutan is a poor country Focused on happiness King coined Gross National Happiness

Contrasts with Western GNP Weiner (2008) concludes there are many

ways to be happy Happiness is cultural

Who’s Happiest?

According to research, Denmark 2/3 are very satisfied with life

Christensen, Herskind, & Vaupel (2006) asked why Welfare state High level of income equality Good economy Democracy Realistic expectations

Map of Happiness (Adrian White)

Calculating World Happiness Meta-analysis

Uses data from multiple studies Only statistical calculations Large amount of data increases validity

The Rankings1. Denmark2. Switzerland23. United States41. UK82. China90. Japan167. Russia

What About US?

Statistical Analysis

How is this map misleading?

Subjective Well-Being

Combines happiness & satisfaction (Inglehart et al., 2004)

1. Puerto Rico2. Mexico3. Denmark4. Ireland5. Iceland United States fifteenth

TOK & Happiness

To what extent is happiness a valid construct when it cannot be compared across cultures?

Positive Psychology

White (2008) Current area of interest in economics &

psychology Focused on empirical study of positive

emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions Seligman, founder of Positive Psychology Smile

Even at a funeral

Healthy, Wealthy, & Wise

According to BBC, 81% of people believe government should invest in happiness

Correlations with happiness Health Wealth Education

Interdependent factors

Culture of Happiness

Most research is conducted in West Life satisfaction is related to income

Money fulfills basic needs Diener & Smiley

Also associated with Trust Safety Lack of corruption

TOK & Happiness (Again)

In what ways is the government responsible for individual happiness in general? In the United States? In another specific culture?

Biological Factors in Happiness

Evolutionary Theory

People adapt to their environment Habituation

We are used to the way things are Adaptation to both positive & negative

factors Humans focus on negative

Threats to safety Striving for more

Genetics

Lykken et al. (1996) Innate baseline or set-point Happiness Twin Study

Identical twins similar in happiness score Regardless of environment

Fraternal twins less similar Genetic influence for happiness

Up to 50% is a ‘set-point’ Only 10% is situational

What about the other 40%?

The How of Happiness (Lyubomirsky 2007)

Devote time to family & friends Easily express gratitude Offer help (Swartz, 1999) Optimistic about future Enjoy life- live in present Exercise Lifelong goals Cope well with stress