Introduction to English Linguistics Kohn, Watts,...

transcript

Introduction to English Linguistics

Kohn, Watts, Winkler

SS06-Part IIIVLS03

Assignments

1. Read Radford (2004), Chapter 2 and 3.

2. Register for the web-based assessment test:

http://www.es-courseportal.de

3. Reread „Course Notes“

Words:

Morphology, Grammatical Categories, Features

and the Minimalist Program

Today’s Topic:

Model of Grammar in The Minimalist Program[Chomsky 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002]

LexiconSyntax

syntactic structure

PF component

PF representation˜

SPEECH SYSTEMS

semantic component

semantic representation˜

THOUGHT SYSTEMS

Structure of the Lecture

2. Syntactic Evidence

Word Classes: classification of words in grammatical categories1. Morphological Evidence

- inflectional processes- word-formation processes- the structure of words

Grammatical categories

• semantic properties

• morphological properties

• syntactic properties

Building Words: morphological processes

Morphological Processes

Inflection Word-Formation

Derivation Compounding

Morphological criteria for the classification of Nouns/Verbs:

i. inflectional properties- relate to different forms of the same wordcat - cats (by adding the plural inflection –s)

ii. derivational properties- relate to the processes by which a different kind of word can be build by e.g. affixation:sad - sadness (by adding the suffix –ness)

Claim 1:

Q: How many inflectional affixes are there in English?

A systematic account of English inflectional morphology is only possible on the basis of the assumption that words belong to grammatical categories, and that a specific type of inflection attaches only to a specific category of word.

English has 8 inflectional affixes

English inflectional affixesNounsplural -s the books

possessive -s John's book

Verbsthird person singular present -s John reads well.

progressive -ing He is sleeping.

past tense -ed He arrived yesterday.

perfect participle -ed/-n He hasn't discussed /seenany book by Chomsky.

English inflectional affixes

Adjectives and adverbs

Synthetic (inflectional) comparison:

comparative -er This one is smaller.He arrived earlier.

superlative -est This one is the smallest.He arrived earliest.

Analytic (periphrastic) comparison:

hopeful, more hopeful, most hopeful;

What went wrong here?

A: Limits to the freedom of innovation.

A new word cannot be derived if the derived word already exists and means something else.

processed food — okay

processed word/sentence — okay

processed world — ???

"Oftentimes, we live in a processed world—you know, people focus on the process and not results.“ G.W. Bush, Washington, D.C., May 29, 2003.

The minimal meaning-bearing unit of language.

Definition of Morphology:

The study of the internal structure of words.

Definition of MORPHEME:

Q: How many morphemes make up the word workers?

work er s

Problem: how to determine the category of the base to which an affix is added, e.g work-er

Conclusion: the base with which -er can combine must be a verb rather than a noun.

• One searches for similar cases whose category can be unequivocally determined like teach-er (teach: V), writ-er (write: V), sell-er (sell: V)

• The base work is sometimes used as V (they work hard) and sometimes as N (this work is time consuming)

note: sale (N) > *saler;

The suffix -er added to a verb means "one who does X"

Verb base Resulting noun

teach-er

write-er

sing-er

*car-er

*house-er

General Conclusion: Inflectional and derivational affixes have categorial properties.

Rootultimate starting point for deriving a word. The root is the most basic morpheme in a word. The root of a word cannot be further decomposed;- teach

Stem/Basethe actual form to which an affix is added; - teach for teach-er; teacher for teacher-s

Affixeach of the bound morphemes is an affix;

Ex: John should not leave the country.John will not leave the country.

Free vs. Bound MorphemesFree Morpheme: can constitute a word by itself, e.g. not

Bound morpheme:must be attached to another element, e.g. n’t

Ex: John shouldn’t leave the country.John won’t leave the country.

Q: Question formation

Claim 2:

A systematic account of English derivational morphology is only possible on the basis of the assumption that words belong to grammatical categories, and that particular derivational affixes can only be attached to words belonging to particular categories.

Q: What went wrong in the following derivational processes?

sad — sadly

computer — *computerly

accept — *acceptly

with — *withly

Observation: the adverbialising suffix ‘-ly’ can only be attached to adjectives not to nouns, not to verbs and not to prepositions.

Q: What went wrong in the following derivational processes?sad — sadness

boy — *boyness

resemble — *resembleness

down — *downness

Observation: the nominalising (i.e. noun-forming) suffix -ness can be attached only to adjective stems (so giving rise to adjective/noun pairs such as coarse/coarseness), not to nouns, verbs or prepositions.

Types of Affixes: defined in terms of their position relative to the stem:Prefix:attached to the front of its stem, e.g. disappear, replay, illegal, inaccurate,

Suffix:attached to the end of its stem, e.g. vividly, government, hunter, distribution,

Infix:occurs between two other mor-phemes, e.g. -um-, -in- in Tagalog(Philippines)

takbuh (run), tumakbuh (ran)lakad (walk), lumakad (walked)

Engl.: absobloodylutely;Massafuckingchusetts

Derivational AffixesAffix Example Change Semantic effect

Suffix attached to V-er work ? worker V ? N one who X-ion protect ? protection V ? N the act of X´ing

attached to N-ial ? presidential N ? A pertaining to X

attached to A-ly ? quietly A ? Adv in a X manner

Derivational Affixes

Prefixin- ? incompetent A ? A not X

re- ? rethink V ? V X again

Affix Example Change Semantic effect

un- ? unhappy A ? A not X

un- ? untie V ? V reverse X

The Structure of Words

Labelled bracketing:

[ teach ]V[ N er ] [N s ]

Q: How can we represent the structure of teach er s?

Tree Structure

Binary Branching Hypothesis:The basic morphological operations are binary.

Definition: In any morphological tree structure, a mother node only has two daughters at most.

Q: Why shouldn´t we assume the followingstructure?

Q: And what is wrong with the following structure?

No-Crossing Branches Restriction: Branches cannot cross.

teach er

Q: How can we represent the structure of nationalization?

Labelled bracketing:

[ nation ]N[ A al ] [V ize ][N ation ]

nation

COMPOUNDING:involves the combination of two words (with or without accompanying affixes)

N - N: mail-box, blackbird, doghouse, doorstopN - A: seaworthy, winedarkN - V: stagemanageA - A: blue-green

In English, compounds can be found in all the major lexical categories - N, A, V, but nouns are by far the most common type of compounds. Verb compounds are quite infrequent.

strong

thirsty

dweller

Complex N Compounds

Ambiguities: Compounds vs. Noncompounds

Compound word Phrasal Expression(non-compound word)

gréenhouse

bláckboard

primary stress on the first component

grèen hoúse

blàck boárd

wèt súitwét sùit

secondary stress on the first component

Ambiguities in Compounds: California history teacher

history

California

teacher

California

history

teacher

[NCalifornia ][N [N history]] [N teacher][N ]Q:

Conclusion: morphological processes

2. Syntactic evidence for assigning words to categories:

Q: What element can occur in the position of the dash?

They have no ---[NOUNS]

car / conscience / ideas

They have no *went [verb]*for [preposition]*older [adjective]*readily [adverb]

Def. Noun: the class of nouns is defined as the set of words which can terminate a sentence in the position marked --- in They have no --.

Claim: Different categories of words have different distributions.

They occupy a different range of positions within phrases or sentences.

Q: What element can occur in the position of the dash?

They can --- stay / leave / hide / die / cry[VERB]

Def. Verb: only a verb (in its infinitive/ base form) can occur in the position marked --- in the above sentence to form a complete (non-elliptical) sentence

Other categories are ungrammatical:

They can --- *gorgeous [adjective]*happily [adverb]*down [preposition]*door [noun]

Def. Adjective: the only category of word which can occur in the position marked --- in the following sentence:

They are very ---

tall /pretty /kind /nice[ADJECTIVE]

*slowly [adverb]

*child [noun]

*astonish [verb]

*outside [preposition]

Def. Preposition: they alone can be in-tensified by right in the sense of ‘completely’, or by straight in the sense of ‘directly’:

Go rightHe went right He walked straight He fell straight

up the ladder.inside.into a wall.down.

[PREPOSITION]

How would you classify better ?

He is better at French than you.

He speaks French better than you.

He is more fluent/*more fluently at French…

He speaks French more fluently/*more fluent …

Substitution Test!

Def.:The substitution test is a technique to determine the category which a givenexpression belongs to. An expression belongsto a given type of category if it can besubstituted (i.e. replaced) in the phrase orsentence in which it occurs by anotherexpression which clearly belongs to thecategory in question.

The Substitution Test:

In determining the syntactic category of a given lexical item, morphological clues must be used in conjunction with syntactic tests, like the substitution test.

We determined five major categories of English: N, V, P, A, Adv.

Summary:

They have an idea.

What else do we need?

They have this idea.

They have two ideas.They have no idea.

They have many ideas.

They have one.

Determiners (D)

Quantifiers (Q)

Proform

"Our enemies are innovative and re-sourceful, and so are we.

What else do we need?

Pronouns (PRN): establish referencerelations in discourse; Proforms: e.g. so; ellipsis;

They never stop thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people, and neither do we." G. W. Bush —Washington, D.C., Aug. 5, 2004

cf. Leave them / those kids alone!Hey! Teachers! Leave them kids alone!What can pronounsdo?

Minimalism: Personal pronouns are classi-fied as functors, like determiners; They do not have descriptive content. They simply encode sets of person, number, gender and case properties.

Pronouns (PRN): traditionally,classified as N;

Lexical categories (open class): have idiosyncratic descriptive content: N, V, P(?), A, Adv;

Lexical vs. functional categories:

Functional categories (closed class): serve primarily to carry information about the gramma-tical properties of expressions; e.g. information about number, gender, person, case.

Determiners (D), Quantifiers (Q), Pronouns (PRN);

Auxiliaries (AUX), Infinitival to (T), Complementizers (C);

Def. AUXILIARIES have the function of marking grammatical properties associated with the relevant verb like tense, aspect, voice, mood or modality

(i) perfective auxiliary: have

(ii) imperfective/ progressive auxiliary: be

(iii) tense (periphrastic) auxiliary: do

(iv) modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must

What are Auxiliaries in English?

What is the difference between auxiliaries vs. verbs?

Auxiliaries have so-called NICE propertiesN egation: Aux are directly negated.

Max didn‘t/couldn‘t see the car. vs. *saw not the car

I nversion: Aux are directly inverted.Did/could Max see the car? vs. *saw Max the car?

C ode: Aux can delete everything to its right;Bill saw the car but Max didn‘t vs. *but Max saw not.

E mphasis: Aux can be used for emphasis:Max DID see the car. vs. Max SAW the car.

Plus TAGS

Infinitive Particle to:Def. To: so called because the only comple-ment it will allow is one containing a V in the infinitive form.

Similarities between inf-To and Aux:It‘s vital that John should show an interest.It‘s vital for John to show an interest.

Jane wants to [go home].

Inf-To and Aux seem to occur in the sameposition in the sentence and require a V in its infinitive form.

Ellipsis Test:Claim: Only inflectional or tensed elements

(T) license VP-ellipsis.

John doesn‘t want to do his linguisticshomework, but he should [-------------].

John knows he should do his linguisticshomework, but he doesn‘t want to [----------].

Auxiliaries and infinitival to are Ts.

Republicans believe in an America run by theright people, their people, in a world in whichwe act unilaterally when we can [-----------], and cooperate when we have to [-----------].

(W. Clinton 26-07-04).

Attested Example:

Complementizers (C):Def.: a C is a word which is used to introduce complement clauses;

I think [that you may be right] ? finite clauseI wonder [if you can help me] ? finite clause

- finite C: that (declarative), if (interrogative);

e.g. that, if, for;

I want [for you to receive the best training].

- infinite C: for (hypothetical, or irrealis)

List of abbreviations:

Labelled Bracketing:

Lexical categories: N, V, A, P, Adv

Functional categories: D, T, C, PRN, Q

[PRN ][T ] [V ] [T ] [V ] [Adv ]

You don't seem to be too

many of the shareholders may

now vote against your revised

takeover bid .

worried about the possibility that[P ] [D ] [N ] [C ]

[Q ] [P ] [D ] [N ] [T ]

[Adv ] [V ] [P ] [PRN ] [A ]

[N ] [N ]

Feature Matrix of lexical elements

+V -V+N A N

-N V P

V: undo, untie, unfold

A: unafraid, unfriendly

N: *unfear, *unfriend

P. *uninside, *unby

Feature matrix of lexical and functional elements

-F +V -V

AUX C/T

Feature Matrix of lexical elementsGeneralization: Each functional category seems to be closely related to a corresponding lexical category: auxiliaries to verbs, pronouns to nouns, determiners to adjectives, and the complementizer for and the infinitive particle to to the corresponding prepositions.

Definition: grammatical category: a set of elements which have the same value(s) for a given set of grammatical features.

Conclusion:

2. Syntactic Evidence

Claim: word classes exist.

1. Morphological Evidence

- inflectional processes- word-formation processes- the structure of words

Introduction to English Linguistics Kohn, Watts,...

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