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INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

WHAT IS A SOCIETY?WHY DO WE NEED SOCIOLOGY?

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES:Functionalism

MarxismMicro Theories

Prepared by:Sara Chookolingo

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WHAT IS A SOCIETY?

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What is a society?A society is any set of people living together in a group comprising of a single community and whose members are interdependent (Mustapha 2009, 23).

Sociology = Studies human society and social behaviour in a scientific manner.

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Society is divided into:1. Social interactions – how people relate to

one another and how they influence each others behaviour.

2. Social Institutions – a group of people banded together for a common purpose.

3. Social Phenomena – observable facts or events that occur in human society.

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SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS In the social sciences, institutions are the

structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human collectivity.

Institutions include the family, religion, education, peer group, economic systems, legal systems, penal systems, political systems, and the media.

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SOCIAL PHENOMENA There are many issues and phenomena that

are addressed in sociology. These include:› Crime› Poverty› Racism› Inequality› Illiteracy› Underdevelopment

› Stratification› Technology› Social Media› Population› Corruption› Sexuality

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WHY IS SOCIOLOGY IMPORTANT? Understand how behaviour is

influenced by social factors. Learn how to view the world through

other’s eyes (sociological perspective). Attempt to connect the larger world

with personal life (sociological imagination).

Find your place both within society and history.

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SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

A theory is a set of ideas that seeks to explain how something works.

A sociological theory seeks to explain how society or aspects of society work.

Most “facts” as we understand it in today’s society are based on theory.

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Theories are extremely selective and as such varying perspectives have its own priorities.

Thus, only a partial or one-sided view of reality is presented.

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Structural (Macro) Theory

Analyses society as a whole and how it functions.

Human behaviour is affected or influenced by the institutions, structures and society as a whole. Society Human Behaviour (interaction)

Life, interactions and social behaviour are all determined by the institutions (school, religion, government) and structures (norms, values, customs, traditions) of society.

One such Macro theory is Functionalism.

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FUNCTIONALISM

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FUNCTIONALISM One of the first sociological theories to

evolve. Became most dominant social theory in the

1940s & 50s, especially in the USA Society can be compared to a living

organism – INSTITUTIONS resemble ORGANS Functionalism investigates the impact

society and institutions have on the individual and behaviour.

INSTITUTIONS BEHAVIOUR

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FUNCTIONALISMThree Major Assumptions:

1. View society as a system of highly interrelated parts that function together harmoniously.

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FUNCTIONALISMThree Major Assumptions:

2. Although societies differ and culture is relative, Functionalists believe in a general consensus (agreement) in society.

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FUNCTIONALISMThree Major Assumptions:

3. Society seeks stability and the status quo and avoids conflict. Conflict is dysfunctional or pathological.

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FUNCTIONALISM – Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Developed the idea of positivism Conducted the first sociological study

on Suicide, where he compared rates of suicide in different countries.

He examined social facts (phenomena) as constraints; also examined the causes and functions of these facts. He posits that social facts constrain or determine human actions (macro view).

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FUNCTIONALISM – Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Social order (status quo) and stability Collective conscience Threats to social solidarity:

› Mechanical – Traditional Society› Organic – Modern Society

Anomie (state of normlessness) Everything has a function and all

functions are positive!

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FUNCTIONALISM – Talcott Parsons (1902-79)

There are four functional prerequisites (basic needs) in order to survive called GAIL:1.Goal Attainment2.Adaptation3.Integration4.Latency

(Pattern Maintenance)

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FUNCTIONALISM – Talcott Parsons (1902-79)

1. Goal Attainment – The Government or political systems are responsible for setting goals.

2. Adaptation – The economy is the main institution concerned with this function.

3. Integration – Adjustment and conflict in society is maintained by the legal system or the law.

4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance) – maintenance of basic patterns or norms/values in society. Socializers or institutions responsible for socialization perform this role. For example – family, education, religion. Religion was the most important for Parsons.

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FUNCTIONALISM – Talcott Parsons (1902-79)FUNCTIONAL PRE-

REQUISITES (BASIC NEEDS)

INSTITUTION(S)

GOAL ATTAINMENT GOVERNMENTADAPTATION ECONOMYINTEGRATION LEGAL SYSTEMLATENCY FAMILY, RELIGION,

EDUCATION

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FUNCTIONALISM – Talcott Parsons (1902-79)

Pattern Variables – in order to understand how society changed and evolved over time, Parsons compared traditional and modern societies by using Pattern Variables A and Pattern Variables B.

TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

MODERN SOCIETY

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FUNCTIONALISM – Talcott Parsons (1902-79)

PATTERN VARIABLES A (TRADITIONAL)

PATTERN VARIABLES B (MODERN)

Ascription (STATUS) AchievementDiffuseness (ROLE) SpecificityParticularism

(FAVOUR) Universalism

Affectivity (GRATIFICATION)

Neutrality

Collective-orientation

(INTERESTS)

Self-orientation

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FUNCTIONALISM – Critique Functionalism has been critiqued

over the years for the following reasons:

› Too deterministic and ignores diversity

› Too ideal or perfect› Too functional – minimizes conflict

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CONFLICT THEORY - MARXISM

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CONFLICT THEORY - MARXISM

Like the Functionalists, conflict theory is a structural or Macro- sociological perspective.

However, this is their ONLY similarity. Marxism offers a radical or revolutionary

alternative to Functionalism. Their MAIN tenet is that society is in a perpetual

state of conflict because there are different groups with different needs and interests.

According to Tischler (2007, 21), conflict theorists view society as constantly changing in response to social inequality and social conflict.

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MARXISM Conflict is normal and desirable Social equilibrium or order is the dominant

or ruling class ploy of maintaining control According to Marxists, there are two groups

in contemporary society:› Ruling Class (BOURGEOISIE or Capitalists)› Lower/Subordinate Class (PROLETARIAT or

Working class) History always had two groups opposing

each other with differing interests (dialectic materialism)

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MARXISM - Critique Conflict theory has been

condemned by several critics:› Too ideologically based› Too economically deterministic› There are more than two classes

(growing middle class)

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IS MARXISM STILL RELEVANT?

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INTERPRETIVE (MICRO) THEORIES

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SOCIAL ACTION While Functionalism and Marxism insist

that the structure or institutions are responsible for the manner in which individuals behave, social action or interpretive perspectives see structure as being influenced by the action of individuals.

Max Weber challenges the view that society exists outside or independently of the individual.

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SOCIAL ACTIONMax Weber (1864-1920)

Social Action or Individual Behaviour should be the focus of the study of society.

THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM (1904)

Social Action is an action carried out by an individual to which a person attached meaning.

It is as a result of conscious thought where an individual logically and rationally gives a reason to an action in a public sphere.

Verstehen – understanding of the meaning attached to an action.

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SOCIAL ACTION Also remembered for his work on Bureaucracies. A bureaucracy was the dominant institution on

industrial society. It is a rational organization with a hierarchy of paid,

full-time professionals who formed a top-down chain of command.

Bureaucracies are everywhere – government, church, schools.

Humans rationally & logically think before they act.

Saw three spheres that affect life – economic, political and cultural.

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OTHER INTERPRETIVE (MICRO) THEORIES

Symbolic Interactionism (by George H Mead)

Society is the product of interaction between people which takes place through the use of symbols which have meaning for the individuals involved.

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OTHER INTERPRETIVE (MICRO) THEORIES

Dramaturgy (by Erving Goffman) It is the belief that life is a stage and

we are all players or actors. We are not our “real” selves in public.

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OTHER INTERPRETIVE (MICRO) THEORIES

Ethnomethodology (by Harold Garfinkel)

Society has a particular order in life based on certain rituals that people use in order to make sense of their world.

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OTHER INTERPRETIVE (MICRO) THEORIES

Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz) How people make sense of their

environment and surroundings by classifying objects based on their understanding.