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8/21/2019 Kickstarter Patent Lawsuit June 2015
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VCBZFJ YZMZFY JBYZTBIZ ILVTZYLVZNFTC JBYZTBIZ LG CFX RLT@
@MZNFTBCF _LA@ GMBAAM, Jbstrbit Eujhf5
_ambctbgg @bi`stmrtfr, Bci. (‑@bi`stmrtfr‛) drluhnt tnbs mitblc mhmbcst
Jfgfcjmcts Gmc Gucjfj, AAI (‑Gmc Gucjfj‛) mcj MrtbstYnmrf, Bci.
(‑MrtbstYnmrf‛), sff`bch jfiamrmtlry rfabfg tnmt V.Y. _mtfct Cl. 8,>>6,>>8 glr
‑Kftnlj mcj mppmrmtusfs glr gbcmcibch mcj kmr`ftbch m irfmtbvf wlr`‛ (tnf
‑„>>8 _mtfct‛) bs bcvmabj, mcj tnus tnmt _ambctbgg jlfs clt (mcj, bcjffj, imcclt)
bcgrbchf bt. Dfglrf tnf Ilurt mrf tnf pmrtbfs‒ irlss-kltblcs glr sukkmry
eujhkfct lc tnf slaf bssuf lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct‒s vmabjbty. M imrfgua rfmj lg tnmt
pmtfct, mcj lg rfifct jfibsblcs lc pmtfct fabhbdbabty grlk tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt
mcj tnf Vcbtfj Ytmtfs Ilurt lg Mppfmas glr tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt, km`fs pambc
tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct iambks lcay tnf mdstrmit mcj tbkf-nlclrfj ilcifpt lg
pmtrlcmhf, mcj fvfc tnf mjjbtblc lg mc fafkfct lg ilkputfr usf bs bcsuggbibfct
tl rfcjfr bt vmabj ucjfr Yfitblc =?= lg tnf _mtfct Mit, 96 V.Y.I. § =?=.
_ambctbgg‒s kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lc tnmt hrlucj bs tnfrfglrf hrmctfj,
mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ kltblc bs jfcbfj.
-----------------------------------------------------
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_ambctbgg,
v.
GMC GVCJFJ, AAI, ft ma.,
Jfgfcjmcts.
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L_BCBLC MCJ LTJFT
VYJI YJCR
JLIVKFCZ
FAFIZTLCBIMAAR GBAFJ
JLI #5 \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
JMZF GBAFJ5 \\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Eucf 42, 4?=6
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf = lg 9=
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DMI@HTLVCJ=
M. Znf _mrtbfs
_ambctbgg @bi`stmrtfr bs m Jfamwmrf ilrplrmtblc wbtn bts prbcibpma pamif lg
dusbcfss bc Cfw Rlr`. (Ilkpa. · 40 Mcs. · 4). Bt bs m wfd-dmsfj gucjbch
pamtglrk glr m wbjf vmrbfty lg irfmtbvf prlefits, bciaujbch tnlsf rfamtbch tl
kusbi, gbak, mrt tfinclalhy, jfsbhc, gllj, mcj pudabsnbch. (Ilkpa. · 20 Ictria.
· 7).
Jfgfcjmct MrtbstYnmrf bs m Jfamwmrf ilrplrmtblc, masl wbtn bts prbcibpma
pamif lg dusbcfss bc Cfw Rlr`, tnmt mssbsts mrtbsts bc miqubrbch gucjbch tl
prljuif irfmtbvf wlr`s dy kmr`ftbch tnfbr prlefits jbrfitay tl bcjbvbjumas mcj
fctbtbfs bctfrfstfj bc tnf prlefits. (Ilkpa. · :0 Ictria. ·· =, =7). MrtbstYnmrf
wms abstfj ms tnf mssbhcff lc tnf pmtfct mt bssuf, tnf „>>8 _mtfct. („>>8 _mtfct
= Znf Ilurt cltfs tnmt, bcslgmr ms tnf bssuf lg pmtfct fabhbdbabty bs ilcifrcfj, tnf bcstmctsukkmry eujhkfct kltblcs iluaj nmvf dffc, mcj pfrnmps snluaj nmvf dffc, styafj ms
kltblcs glr eujhkfct lc tnf pafmjbchs. Yff LB_ Zfinclalhbfs, Bci. v. Mkmzlc.ilk, Bci.,Cl. 4?=4-=727, ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *: (Gfj. Ibr. Eucf ==, 4?=6) (Kmyfr,
E., ilciurrbch) (‑Mjjrfssbch 96 V.Y.I. § =?= mt tnf lutsft clt lcay ilcsfrvfs simrif eujbibma rfslurifs mcj spmrfs abtbhmcts tnf stmhhfrbch ilsts msslibmtfj wbtn jbsilvfrymcj prltrmitfj iambk ilcstruitblc abtbhmtblc, bt masl wlr`s tl stfk tnf tbjf lg vfxmtblussubts drluhnt dy tnf lwcfrs lg vmhuf mcj lvfrdrlmj dusbcfss kftnlj pmtfcts.‛). Zlglrfstmaa miiusmtblcs lg ‑Klcjmy-klrcbch qumrtfrdmi`bch,‛ nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt cltfstnmt suin m ilursf kmy clt nmvf dffc ms ldvblus prblr tl tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt‒s Eucf4?=: jfibsblc bc Mabif Ilrp. _ty. v. IAY Dmc` Bct‒a , =9: Y. It. 49:8 (4?=:), mcj tnf
Gfjfrma Ibriubt eurbsprujfcif tnmt nms jfvfalpfj bc bts wm`f. Bc mcy fvfct, tnf pmrtbfsnmvf fchmhfj bc ilcsbjfrmdaf jbsilvfry (pmrtbiuamray rfamtbch tl bcvmabjbty ilctfctblcsucrfamtfj tl fabhbdbabty), rfsuatbch bc m sudstmctbma rfilrj lc sukkmry eujhkfct. Bcruabch lc tnfsf kltblcs glr sukkmry eujhkfct, tnf Ilurt ilcsbjfrfj tnf fctbrf rfilrj
dfglrf bt0 nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt nfrf sfts glrtn lcay tnlsf gmits pfrtbcfct tl bts jfibsblc,wnbin bs kmjf lc fabhbdbabty hrlucjs. Znf gmits sft glrtn nfrfbc mrf jrmwc prbkmrbaygrlk tnf „>>8 _mtfct btsfag (lc tnf rfilrj ms Elbct Mppfcjbx (‑EM^‛) Fx. =)0 _ambctbgg‒sIlkpambct (‑Ilkpa.‛) (J`t. #=)0 Jfgfcjmcts‒ Mcswfr (‑Mcs.‛) mcj Iluctfriambk(‑Ictria.‛) (J`t #9?)0 _ambctbgg‒s Mcswfr tl tnf Iluctfriambk (‑Ictria. Mcs.‛) (J`t. #9=)0mcj ltnfr jliukfcts ms ibtfj. Glr ilcvfcbfcif, _ambctbgg‒s lpfcbch drbfg bs rfgfrrfj tlms ‑_a. Dr.‛0 Jfgfcjmcts‒ lpfcbch drbfg mcj lpplsbtblc bs rfgfrrfj tl ms ‑Jfg. Dr.‛0_ambctbgg‒s lpplsbtblc mcj rfpay bs rfgfrrfj tl ms ‑_a. Lpp.‛0 mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ rfpay bsrfgfrrfj tl ms ‑Jfg. Tfpay.‛
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4 lg 9=
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mt P89[). Jfgfcjmct Gmc Gucjfj bs m Jfamwmrf abkbtfj abmdbabty ilkpmcy wbtn bts
prbcibpma pamif lg dusbcfss bc Jfamwmrf0 bt bs m wnlaay-lwcfj sudsbjbmry lg
MrtbstYnmrf. (Ilkpa. · 90 Ictria. ·· 9, =8). MrtbstYnmrf nms mssbhcfj tnf „>>8
_mtfct tl Gmc Gucjfj. (Ictria. · :).
D. Znf „>>8 _mtfct
Znf „>>8 _mtfct, fctbtafj ‑Kftnlj mcj Mppmrmtusfs glr Gbcmcibch mcj
Kmr`ftbch m Irfmtbvf Xlr`,‛ wms bssufj dy tnf V.Y. _mtfct mcj Zrmjfkmr`
Lggbif (tnf ‑_ZL‛) lc Gfdrumry >, 4?==. („>>8 _mtfct mt P:6[, P6:[). Znf „>>8
_mtfct iambks ‑m systfk mcj kftnlj glr rmbsbch gbcmcibch mcj/lr rfvfcuf dy
Pmc[ mrtbst glr m prlefit, wnfrf tnf prlefit kmy df m irfmtbvf wlr` lg tnf mrtbst.‛
(Bj. mt P68[). Znf „>>8 _mtfct rfibtfs 98 iambks, wnbin bciaujfs sbx bcjfpfcjfct
iambks (Iambks =, =6, =8, =>, 96, mcj 97) mcj 9= jfpfcjfct iambks (Iambks 4-
=:, =7, =2-9:, 98).4
Iambk = lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs rfprfsfctmtbvf59
4 Jfgfcjmct lrbhbcmaay ilctfcjfj tnmt _ambctbgg bcgrbchfj 46 iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct, lcaygbvf lg wnbin (=, =8, =>, 96, mcj 97) wfrf bcjfpfcjfct iambks. (Yff Emc. =>, 4?=9Lpbcblc mcj Lrjfr (‑Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp.‛) 4 c.=) (J`t. #69). Glaalwbch tnf Ilurt‒s iambkilcstruitblc lpbcblc (sff bj.), Jfgfcjmct stbpuamtfj tnmt _ambctbgg jbj clt bcgrbchf tnf„>>8 _mtfct ms ilcstrufj (sff J`t. #67 mt = c.4).
9 Nmvbch rfvbfwfj tnf „>>8 _mtfct, tnf Ilurt mhrffs wbtn _ambctbgg tnmt Iambk = bsrfprfsfctmtbvf. (Yff _a. Dr. =? & c.:). Jfgfcjmcts mrf ilrrfit tnmt fmin iambk
ilctmbcfj bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs prfsukptbvfay vmabj. (Jfg. Dr. == (ibtbch 96 V.Y.I.§ 4>4)). Dut ig. Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 884 G.9j 8?2, 84?-4= (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:)(Kmyfr, E., ilciurrbch) (‑Matnluhn tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt nms tm`fc up sfvfrma sfitblc =?=
imsfs bc rfifct yfmrs, bt nms cfvfr kfctblcfj ‚ kuin afss mppabfj ‚ mcy prfsukptblclg fabhbdbabty. Znf rfmslcmdaf bcgfrfcif, tnfrfglrf, bs tnmt wnbaf m prfsukptblc lg vmabjbtymttminfs bc kmcy ilctfxts, … cl fqubvmafct prfsukptblc lg fabhbdbabty mppabfs bc tnfsfitblc =?= imaiuaus.‛ (ibtmtblc lkbttfj)). Nlwfvfr, wnfrf, ms nfrf, tnf iambks mrf‑sudstmctbmaay sbkbamr mcj abc`fj tl tnf smkf mdstrmit bjfm,‛ tnf Ilurt kmy jbsplsf lgtnf ltnfr iambks bc afss jftmba. Ilctfct Fxtrmitblc & Zrmcskbssblc AAI v. Xfaas GmrhlDmc`, Cmt‒a Mss‒c , 887 G.9j =9:9, =9:> (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (‑IFZ ‛)0 sff bj. (gbcjbch tnfjbstrbit ilurt ‑ilrrfitay jftfrkbcfj tnmt mjjrfssbch fmin iambk lg tnf mssfrtfj pmtfctswms uccfifssmry‛ mcj mpprlvbch tnf ilurt‒s sfafitblc lg m rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk)0 bj. (rfefitbch pmtfctff‒s mrhukfct tnmt gmbaurf tl mjjrfss fmin iambk bcjbvbjumaay wms
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 9 lg 9=
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Iambk =. M systfk glr kmr`ftbch mcj gucjbch lcf lrklrf prlefits lg mc mrtbst ilkprbsbch m sfrvfr nmvbch
mppabimtblcs prlhrmks lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf glr5
prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tl mc mrtbst lr Miiluct Kmcmhfr
tl kmcmhf mt afmst lcf prlefit, tnf prlefit
ilkprbsbch mt afmst lcf irfmtbvf wlr`0rfifbvbch bcglrkmtblc grlk tnf mrtbst lr Miiluct
Kmcmhfr rfhmrjbch mt afmst lcf Ymafs Ilctmbcfrmsslibmtfj wbtn tnf mt afmst lcf prlefit, fmin YmafsIlctmbcfr bciaujbch mt afmst lcf lg m prljuit, msfrvbif, mcj m pmtrlcmhf, wnbaf tnf mrtbst rftmbcslutrbhnt lwcfrsnbp lg tnf prlefit mcj tnf irfmtbvfwlr`0
trmcskbttbch lggfr jmtm grlk m sfrvfr tl m iabfct vbm mcftwlr`, tnf lggfr jmtm ilkprbsbch mc lggfr tl Gmcs
ilcifrcbch tnf mt afmst lcf Ymafs Ilctmbcfrmsslibmtfj wbtn mt afmst lcf prlefit, wnfrfbc tnf lggfrbs glr m Ymafs Ilctmbcfr mt m prfjftfrkbcfj afvfa lgpmtrlcmhf bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr tnf prlefit0
rfifbvbch mt tnf iabfct suin lggfr jmtm mcj prfsfctbch
tnf lggfr tl tnf Gmc0
trmcskbttbch miifptmcif jmtm dmi` tl tnf sfrvfr grlktnf iabfct miifptbch tnf lggfr0
prlifssbch tnf miifptmcif jmtm dy tnf sfrvfr0
rfhbstfrbch ilctmit mcj kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc
rfhmrjbch _mtrlcs bc m jmtmdmsf0 mcjprlvbjbch tnf mrtbst lr Miiluct Kmcmhfr slgtwmrf tllas
tl kmcmhf ilkkucbimtblcs, tnrluhn smbj _mtrlcjmtmdmsf, tl _mtrlcs rfhmrjbch tnf smafs mcjkmr`ftbch lg lcf lr klrf prlefits.
bcilcsbstfct wbtn stmtutlry prfsukptblc lg vmabjbty lg fmin iambk)0 sff masl Dbas`b v.
@mppls , 67= V.Y. 629, 7==-=4 (4?=?) (jftfrkbcbch tnmt == iambks bc m pmtfctmppabimtblc wfrf bcvmabjay mdstrmit mgtfr mcmayzbch lcay twl lg tnf iambks bc jftmba).Mjjbtblcmaay, tnf jfpfcjfct iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct ‑rfibtf lcay sabhnt vmrbmtblcs lg tnfbcjfpfcjfct iambks,‛ mcj sl tnf Ilurt cffj clt ilcsbjfr tnfk jbstbcitay. _amcft Dbchl,AAI v. W@HY AAI , 687 G. Mpp‒x =??6, =??8 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (ucpudabsnfj jfibsblc)0 sffmasl IFZ , 887 G.9j mt =9:2 (‑PX[nbaf Ptnf jfpfcjfct[ iambks kmy nmvf m cmrrlwfr silpf
tnmc tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambks, cl iambk ilctmbcs mc „bcvfctbvf ilcifpt‒ tnmt trmcsglrkstnf ilrrfsplcjbch iambk bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc lg tnf ltnfrwbsf bcfabhbdafmdstrmit bjfm.‛).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf : lg 9=
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(„>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-79).: Znf _mtfct jfsirbdfs tnf bcvfctblc ms, bctfr mabm ,
m kftnlj glr ‑hfcfrmtbch impbtma glr m prlefit lg mc mrtbst‛ dy lggfrbch
‑fctbtafkfctPs6[ wnbin kmy df rfamtfj tl tnf mrtbsts mt m prfjftfrkbcfj afvfa lg
pmtrlcmhf mklch m paurmabty lg afvfas lg pmtrlcmhf.‛ (Bj. mt ila.: a.4>-9:). Bt
jfsirbdfs sfvfrma kfinmcbsks glr lggfrbch ilcsbjfrmtblc (b.f., mc ‑fctbtafkfct‛)
bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr m prlefit, rfgfrrbch tl tnfsf kfinmcbsks ms ‑Ymafs
Ilctmbcfrs.‛ Znf ‑Ymafs Ilctmbcfr‛ kmy ilcsbst lg mc muitblc, m smafs btfk, m
sudsirbptblc sfrbfs, sudsirbptblc miifss, pmy-pfr-vbfw, abifcsbch, mcj pmtrlc
splcslrsnbp. (Bj. mt ila.=? a.:9-69). M ‑smafs btfk‛ kmy bciaujf, glr fxmkpaf,
jlwcalmjmdaf kusbi, snfft kusbi, mc nlur-alch tfafpnlcf afsslc grlk tnf
mrtbst lc slchwrbtbch, lr slkf ltnfr ‑bcvfctlry btfk.‛ (Bj. mt ila.== a.9-46). M
sudsirbptblc kmy bciaujf miifss tl rfilrjbch sfssblc vbjfls, rfilrjfj emk
sfssblcs, mcj ltnfr prljuitblc-rfamtfj kfjbm lr prljuits. (Bj. mt ila.=4 a.2-
=2). Znf _mtfct jfsirbdfs km`bch lggfrbchs tl ‑gmcs‛ ‚ m tfrk ilcstrufj tl
bciaujf ‑m ilcsukfr, mjkbrfr lr glaalwfr, kfctlr, mcj mcy ltnfr bcjbvbjuma(s)
bctfrfstfj bc tnf Mrtbst‒s wlr`.‛ (Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp. 2). Lcif m ‑gmc‛ miifpts mc
lggfr, tnmt gmc dfilkfs m ‑pmtrlc.‛ (Bj. mt 8). Yuin miifptmcif jmtm mcj
bcglrkmtblc bs stlrfj lc m ‑_mtrlc jmtmdmsf.‛ („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.7?-79).
Znf ‑Gbfaj lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ plrtblc lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bcjbimtfs, bc pmrt5
Znf bcvfctblc bs jbrfitfj tl m cfw dusbcfss mcjjbstrbdutblc pmrmjbhk glr irfmtbvf wlr`s. Klrf
: Znf Ilurt mssukfs gmkbabmrbty wbtn Eujhf _mua M. Irltty‒s Emcumry =>, 4?=9 Lpbcblcmcj Lrjfr (J`t. #69) ilcstrubch jbsputfj tfrks lg tnbs mcj ltnfr iambks.
6 Ms bt bs usfj bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct, mc ‑fctbtafkfct P [ bciaujfs mt afmst lcf prljuit, mcj mtafmst lcf sfrvbif, mcj mt afmst lcf pmtrlcmhf.‛ (Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp. ==).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 6 lg 9=
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pmrtbiuamray, tnf bcvfctblc bs jbrfitfj tl kftnljs mcjsystfks glr ldtmbcbch gbcmcibch grlk bctfrfstfj
bcjbvbjumas tl prljuif m irfmtbvf wlr` bc fxinmchf glrmc fctbtafkfct grlk tnf mutnlr lg tnf wlr`. Znfbcvfctblc bs masl jbrfitfj tl kftnljs mcj systfks glr
prfsfctbch mc mrtbst-ifctfrfj dusbcfss kljfa pmrmjbhk(usbch tnf fctfrtmbckfct bcjustry ms mc fxmkpaf).
(„>>8 _mtfct ila.= a.=:-4=). Znf ‑Dmi`hrlucj lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ sfitblc
jfsirbdfs tnf ‑prldafkPs[ wbtn tnf iurrfct rfilrjbch dusbcfss kljfa‛ (bj. mt
ila.4 a.==-=4) mcj tnf ilcsfqufct ‑cffj glr m kftnlj mcj/lr systfk wnbin wbaa
maalw mrtbsts … tl rmbsf impbtma lc tnfbr lwc mcj prlgbt glr prljuibch m irfmtbvf
wlr`, prfgfrmday prblr tl prljuibch tnf wlr`, mcj prfgfrmday wbtnlut m
rfilrjbch ilctrmit wbtn m rfilrjbch ilkpmcy‛ (bj. mt ila.4 a.=>-44). Znf
‑Yukkmry lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ sfitblc bcjbimtfs tnmt tnf bcvfctblc bs bctfcjfj tl
gbaa tnbs cffj (bj. mt ila.4 a.9:-92), mcj fxpambcs, ‑Znf bcvfctblc kmy km`f usf
lg m ilkdbcmtblc lg fxbstbch prlvfc dusbcfss kljfas bciaujbch dmc`bch, pmtrlc
systfks, kfrinmcjbsbch pmrtcfrsnbps, jbrfit kmr`ftbch, pudabsnbch, gbaf
snmrbch mcj bctfrcft cftwlr`bch, gbaf ilkprfssblc, mujbl/vbjfl tfinclalhbfs,
mcj lcabcf muitblcs (glr fxmkpaf)‛ (bj. mt ila.: a.==-=6).
Znf ‑Jftmbafj Jfsirbptblc lg tnf _rfgfrrfj Fkdljbkfcts‛ plrtblc lg tnf
„>>8 _mtfct jfsirbdfs tnf lvfrmaa systfk paus tnrff fkdljbkfcts, fmin wbtn m
jbggfrfct glius. („>>8 _mtfct ila.7-4=). Bc jfsirbdbch tnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf
pmtfct, tnbs sfitblc cltfs5
Lcf lg s`baa bc tnf mrt wbaa mpprfibmtf tnmt tnf ilkputfrsystfks lutabcfj mdlvf wnbin kmy df usfj wbtn mcy lgtnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf bcvfctblc, kmy bciaujf vmrblusnmrjwmrf mcj lpfrmtbch slgtwmrf … glr ruccbchslgtwmrf prlhrmks, drlwsbch tnf Bctfrcft,ilkkucbimtbch mcj/lr lpfrmtbch wbtn mcy jfvbif,
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 7 lg 9=
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bciaujbch, glr fxmkpaf, m prbctfr, m jbspamy, m `fydlmrj,m klusf, m kljfk, m pnlcf, m wbrfafss jfvbif, tnf
Bctfrcft, m ilkputfr cftwlr`, m slucj systfk, mcj mcyltnfr bctfrcma lr fxtfrcma jfvbif. Yuin ilkputfrsystfk kmy masl bciaujf … bctfrcma mcj fxtfrcma
ilkplcfcts wnbin kmy df usfj glr imrrybch lut tnflpfrmtblcs lg tnf ilkputfr mcj tnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf
prfsfct bcvfctblc.
(Bj. mt ila.> a.6:-78).
Bc suk, Iambk =, ms m rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk, nms tnf glaalwbch rfafvmct
abkbtmtblcs5 (b) m ilkputfr lpfrmtbch fbtnfr lc tnf Bctfrcft lr ltnfr cftwlr`
wbtn miifss tl m sfrvfr0 (bb) prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas wbtn m subtf lg gfmturfs
maalwbch kmcmhfkfct lg lcf lr klrf irfmtbvf prlefits0 (bbb) km`bch ifrtmbc
typfs lg lggfrs msslibmtfj wbtn tnf prlefit bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr tnf prlefit0
(bv) gmibabtmtbch tnf miifptmcif lg lggfrs dy gmcs0 (v) stlrbch ilctmit mcj
kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc lg tnlsf wnl nmvf miifptfj lggfrs bc fxinmchf glr gucjs
bc m jmtmdmsf0 mcj (vb) prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tnmt fcmdaf mcj ilctrla tnf
fxinmchf lg bcglrkmtblc wbtn m gmc tnrluhn tnf jmtmdmsf. (Yff hfcfrmaay
Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp.).
I. _rlifjurma Nbstlry
Lc Yfptfkdfr 9?, 4?==, @bi`stmrtfr ilkkfcifj tnbs mitblc mhmbcst
MrtbstYnmrf mcj Gmc Gucjfj glr jfiamrmtlry eujhkfct lg pmtfct bcvmabjbty mcj
clc-bcgrbchfkfct. (J`t. #=). Lc Gfdrumry 9, 4?=4, Jfgfcjmcts klvfj tl
jbskbss tnf Ilkpambct pursumct tl Gfjfrma Tuaf lg Ibvba _rlifjurf =4(d)(=) glr
ami` lg sudefit kmttfr eurbsjbitblc, mrhubch tnmt tnfrf wms cl imsf lr
ilctrlvfrsy dfimusf tnf pmrtbfs wfrf bc m dusbcfss cfhltbmtblc tnmt jbj clt
bcvlavf m iambk lg bcgrbchfkfct lr tnrfmt lg subt. (J`t. #4?). Lc Mprba =?, 4?=4,
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 8 lg 9=
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Eujhf _mua M. Irltty, tl wnlk tnbs imsf wms lrbhbcmaay mssbhcfj, jfcbfj tnmt
kltblc, gbcjbch suggbibfct ilctrlvfrsy dftwffc tnf pmrtbfs tnmt wms dltn
bkkfjbmtf mcj rfma. (J`t. #42). Lc Mprba 4:, 4?=4, Jfgfcjmcts sudkbttfj mc
Mcswfr tl tnf Ilkpambct mcj m Iluctfriambk lg bcgrbchfkfct (J`t. #9?), mcj
lc Kmy =6, 4?=4, _ambctbgg mcswfrfj tnf Iluctfriambk (J`t. #9=).
Znf imsf prliffjfj tl jbsilvfry. (J`t. #99). Mdlut kbjwmy tnrluhn
jbsilvfry, bc amtf 4?=4, tnf pmrtbfs sudkbttfj iambk ilcstruitblc drbfgbch mcj m
Kmr`kmc nfmrbch wms nfaj. (Yff J`t. #:4-64). Yff hfcfrmaay Kmr`kmc v.
Xfstvbfw Bcstrukfcts, Bci., 6=8 V.Y. 98? (=227). Lc Emcumry =>, 4?=9, Eujhf
Irltty bssufj mc Lpbcblc mcj Lrjfr ilcstrubch jbsputfj tfrks. (J`t. #69). Bc
Gfdrumry 4?=4, dfimusf tnfy wfrf lg tnf vbfw tnmt tnf Ilurt‒s iambk
ilcstruitblc wms jftfrkbcmtbvf lg tnf bssuf lg clc-bcgrbchfkfct, Jfgfcjmcts
rfqufstfj tnmt tnf Ilurt fctfr mt afmst pmrtbma gbcma eujhkfct sl tnmt tnfy iluaj
mppfma tnf Ilurt‒s iambk ilcstruitblc lpbcblc. Eujhf Irltty jfcbfj tnmt
rfqufst. (J`t. #66). Jfgfcjmcts tnfrfglrf stbpuamtfj ms tl _ambctbgg‒s clc-
bcgrbchfkfct ucjfr tnf Ilurt‒s iambk ilcstruitblc, mcj tnf pmrtbfs pursufj
jbsilvfry abkbtfj tl tnf vmabjbty vfa clc lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct. (J`t. #67).
Znf imsf wms rfmssbhcfj tl tnf ucjfrsbhcfj lc Eucf 46, 4?=9 (J`t.
#78), mcj jbsilvfry ilctbcufj. Znf pmrtbfs sudkbttfj irlss-kltblcs glr
sukkmry eujhkfct lc tnf vmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct dfhbccbch Eucf =7, 4?=:.
(J`t. #24). Znlsf kltblcs, wnbin mrf clw dfglrf tnf Ilurt, wfrf guaay drbfgfj
lc Yfptfkdfr =?, 4?=:. (J`t. #27-=?8, ==?). _ambctbgg klvfs glr eujhkfct lg
bcvmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct lc glur hrlucjs, mcj Jfgfcjmct klvfs glr
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf > lg 9=
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eujhkfct lg vmabjbty lc tnlsf smkf hrlucjs5 (b) pmtfctmdbabty lg tnf sudefit
kmttfr0 (bb) ilrrfitcfss lg tnf cmkfj bcvfctlr0 (bbb) ldvbluscfss bc abhnt lg prblr
mrt0 mcj (bv) jfgbcbtfcfss lg iambks.
JBYIVYYBLC
M. Znf Yukkmry Eujhkfct Ytmcjmrj7
Vcjfr Gfjfrma Tuaf lg Ibvba _rlifjurf 67(m), sukkmry eujhkfct kmy df
hrmctfj lcay bg maa tnf sudkbssblcs tm`fc tlhftnfr ‑snlw tnmt tnfrf bs cl
hfcubcf bssuf ms tl mcy kmtfrbma gmit mcj tnmt tnf klvbch pmrty bs fctbtafj tl
eujhkfct ms m kmttfr lg amw.‛ Ifaltfx Ilrp. v. Imtrftt , :88 V.Y. 9=8, 944
(=2>7) (bctfrcma ibtmtblc mcj qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj)0 sff masl Mcjfrslc v.
Abdfrty Alddy, Bci., :88 V.Y. 4:4, 4:8-:> (=2>7). Znf klvbch pmrty dfmrs tnf
bcbtbma durjfc lg jfklcstrmtbch ‑tnf mdsfcif lg m hfcubcf bssuf lg kmtfrbma
gmit.‛ Ifaltfx , :88 V.Y. mt 949. M gmit bs ‑kmtfrbma‛ bg bt ‑kbhnt mggfit tnf
lutilkf lg tnf subt ucjfr tnf hlvfrcbch amw,‛ mcj bs hfcubcfay bc jbsputf ‑bg
tnf fvbjfcif bs suin tnmt m rfmslcmdaf eury iluaj rfturc m vfrjbit glr tnf
clcklvbch pmrty.‛ Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 4:>0 sff masl Efggrfys v. Ibty lg Cfw
Rlr` , :47 G.9j 6:2, 669 (4j Ibr. 4??6) (ibtbch Mcjfrslc ).
Bt bs wfaa-fstmdabsnfj tnmt ‑Ps[ukkmry eujhkfct bs ms mpprlprbmtf bc m
pmtfct imsf ms bc mcy ltnfr.‛ Dmrkmh Dmrkfr Kmsinbcfcgmdrb` MH v. Kurmtm
7 Xnfc jfibjbch bssufs bc m pmtfct imsf, m jbstrbit ilurt mppabfs tnf amw lg tnf Ibriubt bcwnbin bt sbts tl clc-pmtfct bssufs mcj tnf amw lg tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt tl bssufs lgsudstmctbvf pmtfct amw. Yff Bc rf Imkdrbjhf Dbltfin Ilrp., =>7 G.9j =967, =97> (Gfj.
Ibr. =222). Miilrjbchay, m jbstrbit ilurt jfibjfs sukkmry eujhkfct kltblcs ucjfr tnf eurbsprujfcif lg bts rfhblcma ibriubt. Yff Jbhbtfin Bkmhf Zfins., AAI v. Fafitrlcbis glrBkmhbch, Bci., 86> G.9j =9::, =9:> (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 2 lg 9=
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=?
Kmin., Atj., 89= G.4j >9=, >96 (Gfj. Ibr. =2>:). Xnbaf tnf klvbch pmrty dfmrs
tnf bcbtbma durjfc lg jfklcstrmtbch ‑tnf mdsfcif lg m hfcubcf bssuf lg kmtfrbma
gmit,‛ Ifaltfx , :88 V.Y. mt 949, tnf pmrty lpplsbch tnf kltblc kust plbct tl mc
fvbjfctbmry ilcgabit irfmtfj lc tnf rfilrj wbtn gmits sft glrtn bc jftmba, usbch
mggbjmvbts lr sbkbamr jliukfcts, Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 4:>, 46?. ‑Kfrf
ilciauslry maafhmtblcs lr jfcbmas imcclt dy tnfksfavfs irfmtf m hfcubcf bssuf
lg kmtfrbma gmit wnfrf clcf wluaj ltnfrwbsf fxbst.‛ Nbi`s v. Dmbcfs , 629 G.9j
=62, =77 (4j Ibr. 4?=?) (ibtmtblc mcj matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sff masl Mcjfrslc ,
:88 V.Y. mt 4:>, 46?. Lc tnf ltnfr nmcj, tnf fstmdabsnfj gmits, ms wfaa ms mcy
bcgfrfcifs lg gmit jrmwc grlk suin gmits, kust df vbfwfj bc tnf abhnt klst
gmvlrmdaf tl tnf lpplsbch pmrty. Yff Jmaams Mfrlspmif, Bci. v. IBY Mbr Ilrp., 964
G.9j 886, 8>? (4j Ibr. 4??9)0 Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 466. Xnfc jfibjbch irlss-
kltblcs glr sukkmry eujhkfct, suin ms tnf kltblcs pfcjbch dfglrf tnf Ilurt,
m jbstrbit ilurt kust ‑fvmaumtf fmin pmrty‒s kltblc lc bts lwc kfrbts, tm`bch
imrf bc fmin bcstmcif tl jrmw maa rfmslcmdaf bcgfrfcifs mhmbcst tnf pmrty wnlsf
kltblc bs ucjfr ilcsbjfrmtblc.‛ Inbajrfc Gbrst Glucj., Bci. v. Gbmam , Cl. ==-
6=22, ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 4:::6?=, mt *: (4j Ibr. Kmy 44, 4?=6) (ibtbch Dyrcf
v. Tutafjhf , 749 G.9j :7, 69 (4j Ibr. 4?=?)).
D. Mppabimdaf Amw
=.
_mtfct Fabhbdbabty Vcjfr Yfitblc =?= lg tnf _mtfct Mit
‑Xnftnfr m iambk bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr ucjfr
PYfitblc[ =?= bs m tnrfsnlaj bcqubryP.[‛ Bc rf Dbas`b , 6:6 G.9j 2:9, 26? (Gfj. Ibr.
4??>) (‑Dbas`b B ‛), mggbrkfj sud clk. Dbas`b v. @mppls , 67= V.Y. 629 (4?=?)
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =? lg 9=
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(‑Dbas`b BB ‛). Bg m iambk bs clt jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, bt ‑kust df
rfefitfj fvfc bg bt kffts maa lg tnf ltnfr afhma rfqubrfkfcts lg pmtfctmdbabty.‛ Bj.
Znf jftfrkbcmtblc lg wnftnfr m iambk bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr
bs m purf qufstblc lg amw. Yff Glrt _rlpfrtbfs, Bci. v. Mk. Kmstfr Afmsf AAI ,
78= G.9j =9=8, =94? (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4)0 sff masl Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26=
(fxpambcbch tnmt pmtfct vmabjbty ucjfr § =?= bs mc ‑bssuf lg amw‛).8 Vcjfr tnf
8 Jfgfcjmcts mrhuf tnmt tnbs Ilurt kust mppay m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj tljftfrkbcf wnftnfr _ambctbgg nms kft bts durjfc lg prllg ms tl fmin lg bts bcvmabjbtyilctfctblcs. (Yff Jfg. Dr. :, ==-=40 Jfg. Lpp. 8->). Xnbaf bt bs truf tnmt, tl tnf fxtfcttnf Ilurt ms gmitgbcjfr kust km`f gmituma jftfrkbcmtblcs, tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛
stmcjmrj mppabfs (f.h., wnftnfr m pmtfct‒s fafkfcts fxbstfj bc prblr mrt), tl tnf fxtfcttnmt tnf Ilurt bs jrmwbch afhma ilciausblcs (f.h., wnftnfr tnf sudefit kmttfr bs pmtfct-fabhbdaf ucjfr Yfitblc =?=), cl suin stmcjmrj mppabfs. Bc mrhubch tnmt tnf Ilurt kustmppay m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj tl jftfrkbcf sudefit kmttfr fabhbdbabty,Jfgfcjmcts ilcgamtf mc fvbjfctbmry durjfc wbtn afhma mcmaysbs. Znf imsf Jfgfcjmctsibtf glr tnbs mrhukfct bs Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 844 G.9j =996, =9:4 (Gfj. Ibr.4?=9) (‑Vatrmkfribma B ‛), wnbin tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt vmimtfj mcj rfkmcjfj tl tnf GfjfrmaIbriubt glr gurtnfr ilcsbjfrmtblc bc abhnt lg Mabif . Yff XbajZmchfct, Bci. v. Vatrmkfribma,AAI , =9: Y. It. 4>8? (4?=:). Lc rfkmcj, bc f̀fpbch wbtn Mabif , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt jbjclt kfctblc, kuin afss mppay, m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj bc ilkbch tl bts afhmailciausblc tnmt tnf iambks mt bssuf wfrf jbrfitfj mt m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit bjfm.Yff Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 884 G.9j 8?2, 8=9-=8 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (‑VatrmkfribmaBB ‛). Bc m rfifct ilciurrfcif, Eustbif Drfyfr lggfrfj usfgua hubjmcif ilcifrcbch
mppabimtblc lg tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj bc tnbs ilctfxt5
PB[c tnbs mrfm lg amw ms bc ltnfrs tnf fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj lg prllgmppabfs tl qufstblcs lg gmit mcj clt tl qufstblcs lg amw. … Znus mgmitgbcjfr kust usf tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj wnfrftnfrf mrf jbsputfs mdlut, smy, wnfc m prljuit wms gbrst slaj lrwnftnfr m prblr mrt rfgfrfcif nmj dffc pudabsnfj. Kmcy iambks lgbcvmabjbty rfst, nlwfvfr, clt uplc gmituma jbsputfs, dut uplc nlwtnf amw mppabfs tl gmits ms hbvfc. Jl tnf hbvfc gmits snlw tnmt tnfprljuit wms prfvblusay ‑bc pudabi usf‛< 96 V.Y.I. § =?4(d). Jltnfy snlw tnmt tnf bcvfctblc wms ‑clvfPa[‛ mcj tnmt bt wms ‑clc-ldvblus‛< §§ =?4, =?9. Jl tnfy snlw tnmt tnf pmtfct mppabimctjfsirbdfj nbs iambks prlpfray< § ==4. Xnfrf tnf uatbkmtf qufstblc
lg pmtfct vmabjbty turcs lc tnf ilrrfit mcswfr tl afhmaqufstblcs ‚ wnmt tnfsf sudsbjbmry afhma stmcjmrjs kfmc lr nlwtnfy mppay tl tnf gmits ms hbvfc ‚ tljmy‒s strbit stmcjmrj lg prllgnms cl mppabimtblc. … Ilurts imc nfap tl `ffp tnf mppabimtblc lgtljmy‒s ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj wbtnbc bts prlpfr afhmadlucjs dy sfpmrmtbch gmituma mcj afhma mspfits lg mc bcvmabjbtyiambk, smy, dy usbch bcstruitblcs dmsfj lc imsf-spfibgbiibriukstmcifs tnmt nfap tnf eury km`f tnf jbstbcitblc lr dy usbchbctfrrlhmtlrbfs mcj spfibma vfrjbits tl km`f iafmr wnbin spfibgbigmituma gbcjbchs ucjfrabf tnf eury‒s ilciausblcs. Yff Gfj. T. Ibv.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf == lg 9=
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=4
_mtfct Mit, maa pmtfcts mrf ‑prfsukfj vmabj,‛ mcj ‑Pf[min iambk lg m pmtfct
(wnftnfr bc bcjfpfcjfct, jfpfcjfct, lr kuatbpaf jfpfcjfct glrk) Pbs[ prfsukfj
vmabj bcjfpfcjfctay lg tnf vmabjbty lg ltnfr iambks.‛ 96 V.Y.I. § 4>4(m).
Yfitblc =?= jfgbcfs tnf imtfhlrbfs lg bcvfctblcs fabhbdaf glr pmtfct
prltfitblc. Bt prlvbjfs5 ‑Xnlfvfr bcvfcts lr jbsilvfrs mcy cfw mcj usfgua
prlifss, kminbcf, kmcugmiturf, lr ilkplsbtblc lg kmttfr, lr mcy cfw mcj
usfgua bkprlvfkfct tnfrflg, kmy ldtmbc m pmtfct tnfrfglr, sudefit tl tnf
ilcjbtblcs mcj rfqubrfkfcts lg tnbs tbtaf.‛ 96 V.Y.I. § =?=. Yfitblc =?= tnus
‑rfibtfs glur imtfhlrbfs lg pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr5 prlifssfs, kminbcfs,
kmcugmiturfs, mcj ilkplsbtblcs lg kmttfr.‛ Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26=. Znf
Yuprfkf Ilurt rfilhcbzfs ‑tnrff spfibgbi fxifptblcs tl PYfitblc[ =?=‒s drlmj
pmtfct-fabhbdbabty prbcibpafs5 „amws lg cmturf, pnysbima pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit
bjfms.‒‛ Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?= (qultbch Jbmklcj v. Inm`rmdmrty , ::8 V.Y.
9?9, 9?2 (=2>?)). Matnluhn mdsfct grlk tnf tfxt lg Yfitblc =?=, ‑tnfsf
fxifptblcs mrf ... ilcsbstfct wbtn tnf cltblc tnmt m pmtfctmdaf prlifss kust df
P_.[ :2 mcj 6=. Dy bslamtbch tnf gmits (jftfrkbcfj wbtn nfap lg tnf‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj), ilurts imc tnfrfdy mssurf tnfprlpfr bctfrprftmtblc lr mppabimtblc lg tnf ilrrfit afhma stmcjmrj(wbtnlut usf lg tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj). Dy prfvfctbchtnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj grlk rlmkbch lutsbjf bts gmit-rfamtfj rfsfrvmtblc, ilurts imc bcirfmsf tnf ab`fabnllj tnmt
jbsilvfrbfs lr bcvfctblcs wbaa clt rfifbvf afhma prltfitblc wnfrfclcf bs juf.
Kbirlslgt Ilrp. v. b:b Atj. _‒snbp , =9= Y. It. 449>, 4469 (4?==) (ibtmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sffmasl Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4966 (sfttbch glrtn tnf afhma grmkfwlr` glr jftfrkbcbch wnftnfrm iambk bs bcfabhbdaf ms mc mdstrmit bjfm wbtnlut rfgfrfcif tl tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch,‛lr mcy, fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj). Dfimusf tnbs Ilurt jftfrkbcfs tnmt ms m kmttfr lg amwtnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, mcj bs tnus bcvmabj ucjfrYfitblc =?=, bt jlfs clt nmvf liimsblc tl wfbhn gmits usbch tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =4 lg 9=
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=9
„cfw mcj usfgua.‒‛ Bj. Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt nms ilcstrufj Yfitblc =?= mcj bts
prfjfifsslrs bc tnbs kmccfr glr =6? yfmrs. Yff Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:.
Ms tnf Ilurt nms fxpambcfj, ‑tnf ilcifrc tnmt jrbvfs tnbs fxiausblcmry
prbcibpaf Pb[s lcf lg prf-fkptblc.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:0 sff masl Kmyl
Ilaamdlrmtbvf Yfrvs. v. _rlkftnfus Amds., Bci., =94 Y. It. =4>2, =42: (4?=4)
(stmtbch, bc gbcjbch prlifss clt pmtfct-fabhbdaf, tnmt ‑upnlajbch tnf pmtfcts
wluaj rbs` jbsprlplrtblcmtfay tybch up tnf usf lg tnf ucjfraybch cmturma amws,
bcnbdbtbch tnfbr usf bc tnf km`bch lg gurtnfr jbsilvfrbfs‛)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt
7==-=4 (gbcjbch ilcifpt clt pmtfct-fabhbdaf dfimusf maalwbch pmtfct ‑wluaj prf-
fkpt usf lg tnbs mpprlmin bc maa gbfajs, mcj wluaj fggfitbvfay hrmct m klclplay
lvfr mc mdstrmit bjfm‛). ‑_nfclkfcm lg cmturf, tnluhn eust jbsilvfrfj, kfctma
prlifssfs, mcj mdstrmit bctfaafituma ilcifpts mrf clt pmtfctmdaf, ms tnfy mrf
tnf dmsbi tllas lg sibfctbgbi mcj tfinclalhbima wlr`,‛ Hlttsinma` v. Dfcslc , :?2
V.Y. 79, 78 (=284) (‑Dfcslc ‛), mcj ‑klclplabzmtblc lg tnlsf tllas tnrluhn tnf
hrmct lg m pmtfct kbhnt tfcj tl bkpfjf bcclvmtblc klrf tnmc bt wluaj tfcj tl
prlkltf bt,‛ tnfrfdy ucjfrkbcbch tnf _mtfct Mit‒s purplsf, Kmyl , =94 Y. It. mt
=4290 miilrj Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:-66.
Lc tnf ltnfr nmcj, tnf Ilurt nms masl imutblcfj mhmbcst tll drlmjay
bctfrprftbch tnf Yfitblc =?= fxifptblcs, ‑Pg[lr maa bcvfctblcs mt slkf afvfa
fkdljy, usf, rfgafit, rfst uplc, lr mppay amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, lr
mdstrmit bjfms.‛ Kmyl , =94 Y. It. mt =4290 sff bj. (‑Znf Ilurt nms
rfilhcbzfj ... tnmt tll drlmj mc bctfrprftmtblc lg tnbs fxiausblcmry prbcibpaf
iluaj fvbsifrmtf pmtfct amw.‛)0 sff masl Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496: (‑PX[f trfmj
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =9 lg 9=
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=:
imrfguaay bc ilcstrubch tnbs fxiausblcmry prbcibpaf afst bt swmaalw maa lg pmtfct
amw.‛). Matnluhn amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms mrf
tnfksfavfs clt pmtfctmdaf, tnf Ilurt nms kmjf iafmr tnmt ‑„Pm[ppabimtblcs‒ lg
suin ilcifpts „tl m cfw mcj usfgua fcj‒ ... rfkmbc fabhbdaf glr pmtfct
prltfitblc.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496: (qultbch Dfcslc , :?2 V.Y. mt 78
(matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)). Miilrjbchay, bc mppaybch tnf Yfitblc =?= fxifptblcs,
ilurts ‑kust jbstbchubsn dftwffc pmtfcts tnmt iambk tnf dubajbch dali`s lg
nukmc bchfcubty mcj tnlsf tnmt bctfhrmtf tnf dubajbch dali`s bctl slkftnbch
klrf, ... tnfrfdy trmcsglrkbch tnfk bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf bcvfctblc.‛ Bj.
(ibtmtblcs, bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s, mcj drmi`fts lkbttfj).
4. Znf Zwl-Ytfp Mabif Grmkfwlr`
Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt bc Mabif iamrbgbfj tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr`, gbrst sft
glrtn bc Kmyl , tnmt ilurts kust usf bc ‑jbstbchubsnbch pmtfcts tnmt iambk amws
lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms grlk tnlsf tnmt iambk
pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg tnlsf ilcifpts.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4966. Gbrst,
tnf ilurt kust jftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnf iambks mt bssuf mrf jbrfitfj tl lcf lg
tnlsf pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf ilcifpts. Bj. Yfilcj, bg sl, tnfc tnf ilurt kust
jftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnfrf bs slkftnbch fasf bc tnf iambks ‚ mc ‑bcvfctbvf
ilcifpt‛ ‚ ‑suggbibfct tl fcsurf tnmt tnf pmtfct bc prmitbif mklucts tl
sbhcbgbimctay klrf tnmc m pmtfct uplc tnf bcfabhbdaf ilcifpt btsfag.‛ Bj. Dfglrf
mppaybch tnbs grmkfwlr` tl tnf „>>8 _mtfct, nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt rfvbfws Mabif ,
bts prfjfifsslrs, mcj bts prlhfcy, maa lg wnbin prlvbjf hubjmcif tl jbstrbit
ilurts bc jbggfrfctbmtbch dftwffc fabhbdaf mcj bcfabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =: lg 9=
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=6
9. Fvlavbch Eurbsprujfcif lc Vcpmtfctmdaf Bjfms
Bc =284, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt rfefitfj ms bcfabhbdaf pmtfct iambks bcvlavbch
mc mahlrbtnk glr ilcvfrtbch dbcmry-iljfj jfibkma cukfrmas bctl purf dbcmry
glrk, nlajbch tnmt tnf iambkfj pmtfct wms ‑bc prmitbima fggfit ... m pmtfct lc tnf
mahlrbtnk btsfag.‛ Dfcslc , :?2 V.Y. mt 8=-840 sff masl bj. mt 8= (‑Znf
kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam bcvlavfj nfrf nms cl sudstmctbma prmitbima mppabimtblc
fxifpt bc ilccfitblc wbtn m jbhbtma ilkputfr.‛). Yfvfrma yfmrs amtfr, bc _mr`fr v.
Gall` , :98 V.Y. 6>:, 62:-26 (=28>), tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt nfaj tnmt m
kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam glr ilkputbch ‑mamrk abkbts‛ bc m imtmaytbi ilcvfrsblc
prlifss wms masl m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit bjfm. Yff masl bj. mt 6>7->8
(fxpambcbch tnmt ‑Pt[nf lcay jbggfrfcif dftwffc tnf ilcvfctblcma kftnljs lg
inmchbch mamrk abkbts mcj tnmt jfsirbdfj bc Ptnf[ mppabimtblc ... Pbs[ tnf
kmtnfkmtbima mahlrbtnk lr glrkuam‛)0 bj. mt 62= (nlajbch tnmt tl df pmtfctmdaf,
‑Pt[nf prlifss btsfag, clt kfrfay tnf kmtnfkmtbima mahlrbtnk, kust df cfw mcj
usfgua‛). Dut sff Jbmklcj v. Jbfnr , :6? V.Y. =86, =88 (=2>=) (mppaybch Dfcslc
mcj Gall` tl upnlaj m pmtfct iambkbch m ‑prlifss glr iurbch syctnftbi ruddfr
wnbin bciaujfs bc sfvfrma lg bts stfps tnf usf lg m kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam mcj m
prlhrmkkfj jbhbtma ilkputfr‛)0 bj. mt =>8->> (rfmslcbch tnmt ucab`f bc Dfcslc
mcj Gall` , tnf iambks bc tnf Jbfnr pmtfct ‑jPbj[ clt sff` tl prf-fkpt tnf usf lg
tnmt fqumtblc,‛ dut bcstfmj tnf fqumtblc paus mjjbtblcma spfibgbi stfps rfcjfrfj
tnf ilkdbcmtblc pmtfctmdaf ms ‑mc mppabimtblc lg m amw lg cmturf lr
kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam tl m `clwc struiturf lr prlifss‛).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =6 lg 9=
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=7
Bc 4?=?, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt rfmggbrkfj tnfsf prbcibpafs bc Dbas`b ,
rfefitbch tnf fabhbdbabty lg m pmtfct tnmt iambkfj ‑tnf ilcifpt lg nfjhbch rbs` mcj
tnf mppabimtblc lg tnmt ilcifpt tl fcfrhy kmr`fts.‛ Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?2.
Znf Dbas`b Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑Pt[nf ilcifpt lg nfjhbch, jfsirbdfj bc iambk = mcj
rfjuifj tl m kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam bc iambk :, bs mc ucpmtfctmdaf mdstrmit
bjfm, eust ab`f tnf mahlrbtnks mt bssuf bc Dfcslc mcj Gall` . Maalwbch
pftbtblcfrs tl pmtfct rbs` nfjhbch wluaj prf-fkpt usf lg tnbs mpprlmin bc maa
gbfajs, mcj wluaj fggfitbvfay hrmct m klclplay lvfr mc mdstrmit bjfm.‛ Bj. mt
7==-=40 sff masl bj. mt 7=4 (fxpambcbch tnmt ‑abkbtbch mc mdstrmit bjfm tl lcf
gbfaj lg usf lr mjjbch tl`fc plst-slautblc ilkplcfcts jbj clt km`f tnf
ilcifpt pmtfctmdaf‛).
Glaalwbch Dbas`b BB , tnf Ilurt lg Mppfmas glr tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nmj
sfvfrma lpplrtucbtbfs tl ilcsbjfr tnf pmtfct-fabhbdbabty lg mrhumday mdstrmit
bjfms, pmrtbiuamray ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj bjfms. Grlk tnfsf jfibsblcs, bt bs
iafmr tnmt sbkpay bcvlavbch m ilkputfr bc m prlifss jlfs clt cfifssmrbay hrlucj
tnmt prlifss bc m tmchbdaf, pmtfctmdaf glrk. Glr fxmkpaf, bc IydfrYlurif Ilrp.
v. Tftmba Jfibsblcs, Bci., 76: G.9j =977 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?==), tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt
ilciaujfj tnmt m kftnlj lg jftfitbch irfjbt imrj grmuj wms pmtfct bcfabhbdaf,
cltwbtnstmcjbch tnf gmit tnmt tnf pmtfct rfibtfj tnf usf lg fxbstbch ilkputfrs
mcj tnf Bctfrcft. Znf Ilurt fkpnmsbzfj ‑tnmt tnf dmsbi inmrmitfr lg m prlifss
iambk jrmwc tl mc mdstrmit bjfm bs clt inmchfj dy iambkbch lcay bts
pfrglrkmcif dy ilkputfrs, lr dy iambkbch tnf prlifss fkdljbfj bc prlhrmk
bcstruitblcs lc m ilkputfr rfmjmdaf kfjbuk.‛ Bj. mt =9860 sff masl
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =7 lg 9=
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=8
Jfmafrtrmi`, Bci. v. Nudfr , 78: G.9j =9=6, =999 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (‑Ybkpay
mjjbch m „ilkputfr mbjfj‒ abkbtmtblc tl m iambk ilvfrbch mc mdstrmit ilcifpt,
wbtnlut klrf, bs bcsuggbibfct tl rfcjfr tnf iambk pmtfct fabhbdaf.‛)0 bj. mt =999-
9: (ilciaujbch tnmt iambks jrmwc tl m ‑ilkputfr-mbjfj‛ kftnlj lg prlifssbch
bcglrkmtblc tnrluhn m iafmrbchnlusf gfaa lutsbjf tnf mkdbt lg Yfitblc =?=)0
Dmcilrp Yfrvs., A.A.I. v. Yuc Abgf Mssur. Il. lg Imcmjm (V.Y.) , 7>8 G.9j =477,
=4>? (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (rfefitbch pmtfct ms bcfabhbdaf wnfrf ‑wbtnlut tnf
ilkputfr abkbtmtblcs cltnbch rfkmbcs bc tnf iambks dut tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg
kmcmhbch m stmdaf vmauf prltfitfj abgf bcsurmcif plabiy dy pfrglrkbch
imaiuamtblcs mcj kmcbpuamtbch tnf rfsuats‛)0 ig. KyYpmif, Bci. v. HrmpnLc Ilrp.,
784 G.9j =46?, =478 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (Kmyfr, E., jbssfctbch) (‑Xnbaf ruccbch m
pmrtbiuamr prlifss lc m ilkputfr ucjfcbmday bkprlvfs fggbibfciy mcj miiurmiy,
ialm`bch mc ltnfrwbsf mdstrmit bjfm bc tnf hubsf lg m ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj
iambk bs bcsuggbibfct tl drbch bt wbtnbc sfitblc =?=.… Hbvfc tnf udbqubty lg
ilkputfrs bc ilctfkplrmry abgf, maalwbch m prlifss tl dfilkf pmtfctmdaf
sbkpay dfimusf bt bs ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj lr bcvl`fs tnf usf lg tnf Bctfrcft
wluaj rfcjfr tnf sudefit-kmttfr fabhbdbabty irbtfrbm ilctmbcfj bc sfitblc =?=
vbrtumaay kfmcbchafss.‛ (ibtmtblcs lkbttfj)).
Bc 4?=4, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mhmbc ilcsbjfrfj pmtfct fabhbdbabty bc Kmyl
Ilaamdlrmtbvf Yfrvs. v. _rlkftnfus Amds., Bci., =94 Y. It. =4>2 (4?=4), mcj jrfw
m abcf dftwffc pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf ilcifpts mcj pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg
tnlsf ilcifpts. Bc jlbch sl, tnf Ilurt sft lut tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr` (amtfr
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =8 lg 9=
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=>
iamrbgbfj bc Mabif , ms sft glrtn mdlvf) tl jftfrkbcf lc wnbin sbjf lg tnmt abcf m
hbvfc ilcifpt gfaa. Mt bssuf bc Kmyl wfrf
pmtfct iambks ilvfrbch prlifssfs tnmt nfap jlitlrs wnl
usfPj[ tnblpurbcf jruhs tl trfmt pmtbfcts wbtnmutlbkkucf jbsfmsfs jftfrkbcf wnftnfr m hbvfc
jlsmhf afvfa Pwm[s tll alw lr tll nbhn. Znf iambkspurplrtPfj[ tl mppay cmturma amws jfsirbdbch tnf
rfamtblcsnbps dftwffc tnf ilcifctrmtblc bc tnf dallj lgifrtmbc tnblpurbcf kftmdlabtfs mcj tnf ab`fabnllj tnmttnf jruh jlsmhf wPluaj[ df bcfggfitbvf lr bcjuif nmrkguasbjf-fggfits.
Bj. mt =42:. Bc stfp lcf lg tnf grmkfwlr`, tnf Ilurt glucj tnmt tnf mt-bssuf
pmtfct iambks wfrf jbrfitfj tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf amws lg cmturf. _rliffjbch tl
stfp twl, tnf Ilurt nfaj tnmt tnf ilkdbcmtblc lg stfps rfibtfj bc tnf pmtfct
mppabimtblc wms clt fcluhn tl rfcjfr tnf iambkfj prlifss m clvfa mppabimtblc lg
tnf amw lg cmturf. Bt rfmslcfj tnmt ‑tnf stfps bc tnf iambkfj prlifssfs (mpmrt
grlk tnf cmturma amws tnfksfavfs) bcvlavf wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf,
ilcvfctblcma mitbvbty prfvblusay fchmhfj bc dy rfsfmrinfrs bc tnf gbfaj,‛ bj., mcj
‑sbkpay mppfcjbch ilcvfctblcma stfps, spfibgbfj mt m nbhn afvfa lg hfcfrmabty, tl
amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms imcclt km`f tnlsf
amws, pnfclkfcm, mcj bjfms pmtfctmdaf,‛ bj. mt =9??. Miilrjbchay, tnf Ilurt
nfaj tnmt tnf iambkfj prlifss wms pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf.
Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt klst rfifctay mppabfj tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr` bc
Mabif , wnfrf bt ilcsbjfrfj m pmtfct iambkbch ‑m kftnlj lg fxinmchbch gbcmcibma
ldabhmtblcs dftwffc twl pmrtbfs usbch m tnbrj-pmrty bctfrkfjbmry tl kbtbhmtf
sfttafkfct rbs`,‛ bc wnbin ‑Pt[nf bctfrkfjbmry irfmtfs mcj upjmtfs „snmjlw‒
rfilrjs tl rfgafit tnf vmauf lg fmin pmrty‒s mituma miilucts nfaj mt „fxinmchf
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf => lg 9=
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=2
bcstbtutblcs,‒ tnfrfdy pfrkbttbch lcay tnlsf trmcsmitblcs glr wnbin tnf pmrtbfs
nmvf suggbibfct rfslurifs.‛ =9: Y. It. mt 4967.> Mt stfp lcf, tnf Ilurt nfaj
tnf iambks wfrf jbrfitfj mt mc mdstrmit bjfm, fxpambcbch tnmt ‑Pa[b`f tnf rbs`
nfjhbch bc Dbas`b , tnf ilcifpt lg bctfrkfjbmtfj sfttafkfct bs „m gucjmkfctma
filclkbi prmitbif alch prfvmafct bc lur systfk lg ilkkfrif.‒‛ Bj. Bc sl
nlajbch, tnf Ilurt fkpnmsbzfj tnmt m ‑kftnlj lg lrhmcbzbch nukmc mitbvbty‛
kmy df bkpfrkbssbday mdstrmit bg bt bs hrlucjfj bc m gucjmkfctma prmitbif. Bj.
mt 4967-68.
Zurcbch tl tnf sfilcj stfp, tnf Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑tnf kftnlj iambks,
wnbin kfrfay rfqubrf hfcfrbi ilkputfr bkpafkfctmtblc, gmba tl trmcsglrk tnmt
mdstrmit bjfm bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf bcvfctblc.‛ =9: Y. It. mt 4968. Znf Ilurt
fxpambcfj tnmt ‑Pt[nf bctrljuitblc lg m ilkputfr bctl tnf iambks jlfs clt matfr
tnf mcmaysbs mt Kmyl stfp twl.‛ Bj.0 sff masl bj. mt 497? (gbcjbch iambks kfrfay
bcvl`fj hfcfrbi ilkputfr gucitblcs wnfrf tnfy jfsirbdfj m ‑jmtm prlifssbch
systfk wbtn m ilkkucbimtblcs ilctrlaafr mcj jmtm stlrmhf ucbt,‛ wnbin wfrf
‑purfay gucitblcma mcj hfcfrbi‛ ilkplcfcts glr ‑pfrglrkbch tnf dmsbi
imaiuamtblc, stlrmhf, mcj trmcskbssblc gucitblcs rfqubrfj dy tnf kftnlj
iambks‛ (bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj)).2
>
Mabif wms bssufj Eucf =2, 4?=:, eust jmys mgtfr _ambctbgg‒s lpfcbch drbfg wms juf lc Eucf =7, 4?=:. Jfgfcjmcts jbsiussfj Mabif bc tnfbr lpfcbch drbfg (Jfg. Dr. ==-=>), mcj
_ambctbgg nmj mc lpplrtucbty tl mjjrfss bt bc bts lpplsbtblc/rfpay drbfg (_a. Lpp. =-=?).
2 Znfrf bs cl kmtfrbma jbggfrfcif dftwffc tnf ‑systfk‛ iambks sft glrtn bc tnf „>>8 _mtfctmcj tnf ‑kftnlj‛ iambks jbsiussfj bc Mabif mcj ltnfr imsfs. Yff Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt
497? (‑PZ[nf systfk iambks mrf cl jbggfrfct grlk tnf kftnlj iambks bc sudstmcif. Znfkftnlj iambks rfibtf tnf mdstrmit bjfm bkpafkfctfj lc m hfcfrbi ilkputfr0 tnf systfkiambks rfibtf m nmcjgua lg hfcfrbi ilkputfr ilkplcfcts ilcgbhurfj tl bkpafkfct tnfsmkf bjfm.‛).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =2 lg 9=
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4?
Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nms sbcif nmj sfvfrma lpplrtucbtbfs tl mppay tnf
grmkfwlr` mcj rfmslcbch lg Mabif . Glaalwbch Mabif , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt rfvfrsfj
ilursf bc bts jfibsblc mgtfr rfkmcj bc Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j 8?2. Znf
jbstrbit ilurt nmj bcvmabjmtfj tnf pmtfct-bc-subt ms m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit
bjfm0 tnf bcvfctblc wms jbrfitfj tl m kftnlj glr jbstrbdutbch ilpyrbhntfj kfjbm
prljuits lvfr tnf Bctfrcft wnfrf m ilcsukfr rfifbvfj m ilpyrbhntfj kfjbm
prljuit mt cl ilst bc fxinmchf glr vbfwbch mc mjvfrtbsfkfct, mcj tnf mjvfrtbsfr
pmbj glr tnf ilpyrbhntfj ilctfct. Yff bj. mt 8=4-=9.=? Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nmj
lrbhbcmaay rfvfrsfj, gbcjbch, bctfr mabm , tnmt tnf bcvfctblc ‑bcvlavfPj[ mc fxtfcsbvf
ilkputfr bctfrgmif.‛ Vatrmkfribma B , 844 G.9j mt =964. Lc rfkmcj glr
rfilcsbjfrmtblc bc abhnt lg Mabif , nlwfvfr, tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mggbrkfj tnf
jbstrbit ilurt‒s bcvmabjmtblc, cltbch, ‑Znf Ilurt bc Mabif kmjf iafmr tnmt m iambk
tnmt bs jbrfitfj tl mc mdstrmit bjfm jlfs clt klvf bctl PYfitblc[ =?= fabhbdbabty
tfrrbtlry dy „kfrfay rfqubrPbch[ hfcfrbi ilkputfr bkpafkfctmtblc.‒‛ Vatrmkfribma
BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=9.
Bc m ‑strmbhntglrwmrj‛ mppabimtblc lg Mabif bc duyYMGF, Bci. v. Hllhaf, Bci.,
876 G.9j =96?, =966 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:), tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mggbrkfj m jbstrbit
ilurt‒s bcvmabjmtblc lg iambks jbrfitfj tl ‑kftnljs mcj kminbcf-rfmjmdaf
=? Znf Ilurt abstfj tnf bcvfctblc‒s pfrtbcfct stfps ms bciaujbch5 ‑Pb[ rfifbvbch ilpyrbhntfjkfjbm grlk m ilctfct prlvbjfr0 Pbb[ sfafitbch mc mj mgtfr ilcsuatbch mc mitbvbty alh tljftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnf mj nms dffc pamyfj afss tnmc m ifrtmbc cukdfr lg tbkfs0Pbbb[ lggfrbch tnf kfjbm glr smaf lc tnf Bctfrcft0 Pbv[ rfstrbitbch pudabi miifss tl tnf kfjbm0Pv[ lggfrbch tnf kfjbm tl tnf ilcsukfr bc fxinmchf glr wmtinbch tnf sfafitfj mj0Pvb[ rfifbvbch m rfqufst tl vbfw tnf mj grlk tnf ilcsukfr0 Pvbb[ gmibabtmtbch jbspamy lg tnfmj0 Pvbbb[ maalwbch tnf ilcsukfr miifss tl tnf kfjbm0 Pbx[ maalwbch tnf ilcsukfr miifsstl tnf kfjbm bg tnf mj bs bctfrmitbvf0 Px[ upjmtbch tnf mitbvbty alh0 mcj Pxb[ rfifbvbchpmykfct grlk tnf splcslr lg tnf mj.‛ Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=:-=6.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4? lg 9=
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4=
kfjbm fciljfj tl pfrglrk stfps glr humrmctffbch m pmrty‒s pfrglrkmcif lg bts
lcabcf trmcsmitblc.‛ 876 G.9j mt =96=.== Gbrst, tnf Ilurt glucj tnf iambks
wfrf mbkfj mt mc mdstrmit ilcifpt5 ‑Znf iambks mrf squmrfay mdlut irfmtbch m
ilctrmituma rfamtblcsnbp ‚ m „trmcsmitblc pfrglrkmcif humrmcty‒ ‚ tnmt bs
dfylcj qufstblc lg mcibfct abcfmhf.‛ Bj. mt =966. Znf gmit tnmt jfpfcjfct
iambks cmrrlwfj tnf iambks tl ‑pmrtbiuamr typfs lg suin rfamtblcsnbps‛ kmjf cl
jbggfrfcif. Bj.0 sff masl bj. (‑Znbs `bcj lg cmrrlwbch lg suin alch-gmkbabmr
ilkkfribma trmcsmitblcs jlfs clt km`f tnf bjfm clc-mdstrmit glr Yfitblc =?=
purplsfs.‛). Cfxt, tnf Ilurt glucj tnmt tnf iambks‒ bcvlimtblc lg ilkputfr
gucitblcmabty ‚ dy wnbin m ilkputfr ‑rfifbvPfj[ m rfqufst glr m humrmctff mcj
trmcskbtPtfj[ mc lggfr lg humrmctff bc rfturc‛ ‚ mjjfj ‑cl bcvfctbvf ilcifpt.‛
Bj.
Klrf rfifctay, bc LB_ Zfins., Bci. v. Mkmzlc.ilk, Bci., Cl. 4?=4-=727,
‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>= (Gfj. Ibr. Eucf ==, 4?=6), tnf Ilurt ilcsbjfrfj
iambks jbrfitfj tl tnf ilcifpt lg ‑lggfr-dmsfj prbif lptbkbzmtblc‛ tnmt rfibtfj m
‑kftnlj lg prbibch m prljuit glr smaf.‛ 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9.=4 Gbcjbch
== Znf Ilurt sukkmrbzfj tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk ms ‑m kftnlj bc wnbin Pb[ m ilkputfrlpfrmtfj dy tnf prlvbjfr lg m smgf trmcsmitblc sfrvbif rfifbvfs m rfqufst glr mpfrglrkmcif humrmctff glr mc „lcabcf ilkkfribma trmcsmitblc‒0 Pbb[ tnf ilkputfrprlifssfs tnf rfqufst dy ucjfrwrbtbch tnf rfqufstbch pmrty bc lrjfr tl prlvbjf tnf
trmcsmitblc humrmctff sfrvbif0 mcj Pbbb[ tnf ilkputfr lggfrs, vbm m „ilkputfr cftwlr`,‒ mtrmcsmitblc humrmcty tnmt dbcjs tl tnf trmcsmitblc uplc tnf ialsbch lg tnf trmcsmitblc.‛duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =96=.
=4 Znf Ilurt glucj tnf rfafvmct abkbtmtblcs lg tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk wfrf5 ‑Pb[ tfstbch mpaurmabty lg prbifs0 Pbb[ hmtnfrbch stmtbstbis hfcfrmtfj mdlut nlw iustlkfrs rfmitfj tl tnflggfrs tfstbch tnf prbifs0 Pbbb[ usbch tnmt jmtm tl fstbkmtf lutilkfs (b.f. kmppbch tnfjfkmcj iurvf lvfr tbkf glr m hbvfc prljuit)0 mcj Pbv[ mutlkmtbimaay sfafitbch mcjlggfrbch m cfw prbif dmsfj lc tnf fstbkmtfj lutilkf.‛ LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA
9744=>=, mt *4.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4= lg 9=
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tnmt ‑lggfr dmsfj prbibch‛ wms ‑sbkbamr tl ltnfr „gucjmkfctma filclkbi
ilcifpts‒ glucj tl df mdstrmit bjfms dy tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mcj tnbs ilurt,‛ tnf
Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑Pi[lcsbjfrfj bcjbvbjumaay lr tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj
ilkdbcmtblc, tnf iambk fafkfcts gmba tl „trmcsglrk‒ tnf iambkfj mdstrmit bjfm
bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj. (bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj). Znf
Ilurt mhrffj wbtn tnf jbstrbit ilurt tnmt pmtfct-bc-subt iambkfj ‑cl klrf tnmc
mc mdstrmit bjfm ilupafj wbtn rlutbcf jmtm-hmtnfrbch stfps mcj ilcvfctblcma
ilkputfr mitbvbty,‛ mcj upnfaj bcvmabjmtblc. Bj. mt *=0 sff masl IFZ , 887 G.9j
mt =9:6 (mggbrkbch bcvmabjmtblc lg kftnlj pmtfct usbch ‑mutlkmtfj jbhbtbzbch
ucbt,‛ b.f., ilkputfr simccfr, glr fxtrmitbch, rfilhcbzbch, imtfhlrbzbch, mcj
stlrbch bcglrkmtblc grlk nmrj-ilpy jliukfcts, f.h., infi`s dy MZK kminbcfs)0
_amcft Dbchl , 687 G. Mpp‒x mt =??7 (bcvmabjmtbch, bc ‑strmbhntglrwmrj
mppabimtblc‛ lg Mabif , ilkputfr-mbjfj kftnljs mcj systfks glr kmcmhbch tnf
hmkf lg dbchl).
Bc lcay lcf imsf sbcif tnf bssumcif lg Mabif nms tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nfaj m
ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj kftnlj pmtfct tl df fabhbdaf, mcj tnfrf bt wms m jbvbjfj
pmcfa. JJT Nlajbchs, AAI v. Nltfas.ilk, A._., 889 G.9j =4:6 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:).
Bc JJT Nlajbchs , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nfaj tnmt iambks ilvfrbch ‑systfks mcj
kftnljs lg hfcfrmtbch m ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf tnmt ilkdbcfs ifrtmbc vbsuma
fafkfcts lg m „nlst‒ wfdsbtf wbtn ilctfct lg m tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmct‛ pmssfj
kustfr ucjfr Yfitblc =?=. 889 G.9j mt =4:>. Znf ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf
prfvfctfj tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmcts grlk aurbch vbsbtlr trmggbi mwmy grlk m nlst
wfdsbtf. Bj. Tmtnfr tnmc dfbch rfjbrfitfj tl m kfrinmct‒s wfdsbtf, m abc`fj
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 44 lg 9=
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mjvfrtbsfkfct wluaj tm`f tnf vbsbtlr tl m ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf tnmt jbspamyfj
prljuit bcglrkmtblc grlk tnf tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmct wnbaf kmbctmbcbch tnf nlst
wfdsbtf‒s ‑all` mcj gffa.‛ Bj.
Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mjvfrtfj tl, dut jbj clt guaay fchmhf bc, tnf gbrst stfp
lg Mabif 5 wnbaf mi`clwafjhbch tnmt tnf iambks wfrf jbrfitfj tl mc mdstrmit bjfm,
bt jbj clt bjfctbgy tnf prfibsf cmturf lg tnmt bjfm. Bj. mt =468. Bcstfmj, bt
ldsfrvfj tnmt, nlwfvfr inmrmitfrbzfj, Mabif ‒s sfilcj stfp wms kft dfimusf tnf
iambks jbj ‑clt kfrfay rfibtf tnf pfrglrkmcif lg slkf dusbcfss prmitbif `clwc
grlk tnf prf-Bctfrcft wlraj malch wbtn tnf rfqubrfkfct tl pfrglrk bt lc tnf
Bctfrcft,‛ dut bcstfmj, ‑tnf iambkfj slautblc Pwms[ cfifssmrbay rlltfj bc
ilkputfr tfinclalhy tl lvfrilkf m prldafk spfibgbimaay mrbsbch bc tnf rfmak lg
ilkputfr cftwlr`s.‛ Bj. Znf Ilurt glucj tnf iambks mt bssuf jbstbchubsnmdaf
grlk bcfabhbdaf ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj kftnljs dfimusf tnfy ‑Pjbj[ clt drlmjay
mcj hfcfrbimaay iambk „usf lg tnf Bctfrcft‒ tl pfrglrk mc mdstrmit dusbcfss
prmitbif (wbtn bcsbhcbgbimct mjjfj mitbvbty),‛ mcj tnf iambks ‑spfibgPbfj[ nlw
bctfrmitblcs wbtn tnf Bctfrcft mrf kmcbpuamtfj tl ybfaj m jfsbrfj rfsuat ‚ m
rfsuat tnmt lvfrrbjfs tnf rlutbcf mcj ilcvfctblcma sfqufcif lg fvfcts lrjbcmrbay
trbhhfrfj dy tnf iabi` lg m nypfrabc`.‛ Bj. mt =46>. Bc ltnfr wlrjs, ‑tnf
abkbtmtblcs lg tnf ... mssfrtfj iambks P [ tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj
ilkdbcmtblc ... rfibtfPj[ mc bcvfctblc tnmt Pwm[s clt kfrfay tnf rlutbcf lr
ilcvfctblcma usf lg tnf Bctfrcft.‛ Bj. mt =462. Dut sff bj. mt =479-77 (Kmyfr,
E., jbssfctbch) (amkfctbch tnf ‑stmhhfrbch‛ silpf lg JJT‒s pmtfcts, wnbin
‑jfsirbdfPj[ m hlma ‚ ilcgusbch ilcsukfrs dy km`bch twl wfd pmhfs all`
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 49 lg 9=
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mab`f ‚ dut jbsialsfPj[ cl cfw tfinclalhy lr bcvfctbvf ilcifpt glr minbfvbch
tnmt hlma,‛ mcj ‑mrhumday ilvfrPfj[ vmst swmtns lg Bctfrcft ilkkfrif‛ (ibtmtblcs
lkbttfj)).
I. Mppabimtblc lg tnf Zwl-Ytfp Mabif Grmkfwlr` tl tnf „>>8 _mtfct
Bc drlmj sukkmry, _ambctbgg mrhufs tnmt tnf iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct gmaa
lutsbjf Yfitblc =?= dfimusf tnfy tfmin tnf ‑mdstrmit bjfm lg irlwj-dmsfj
gucjbch‛ (_a. Dr. =?), lr lg ‑rmbsbch klcfy grlk gmcs tl supplrt mc mrtbstbi wlr`‛
(_a. Lpp. =), lr lg ‑rmbsbch klcfy grlk pmtrlcmhf‛ (bj. mt 6)0 tnf mjjbtblc lg m
ilkputfr jlfs clt rfcjfr tnf kmtfrbma pmtfctmdaf, bcmskuin ms tnf _mtfct lcay
‑rfibtfs hfcfrbi stfps mcj tllas glr bkpafkfctbch tnf mdstrmit bjfm‛ lc m
ilkputfr. (_a. Dr. ==). Jfgfcjmcts mssfrt tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs clt jbrfitfj
tlwmrjs mc mdstrmit bjfm, mcj iluctfr tnmt dfimusf _ambctbgg nms ‑gmbaPfj[ tl
prlvbjf mcy jfgbcbtblc glr irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,‛ tnfrf bs ‑cl wmy glr tnf Ilurt
tl mssfss wnftnfr tnf iambks mrf jbrfitfj tl tnmt ucjfgbcfj ilcifpt.‛ (Jfg. Dr.
=9). Jfgfcjmcts gurtnfr mrhuf tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct wluaj clt prffkpt ltnfr
mppabimtblcs lg tnf bjfm lg irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch, cfifssbtmtbch tnf ilciausblc
tnmt bt bs clt mdstrmit, mcj tnmt bts iambks ilvfr ‑pmrtbiuamr systfks glr
kmcmhbch, kmr`ftbch, mcj gbcmcibch m irfmtbvf wlr`‛ (bj. mt =9-=:), lr ‑m
pmrtbiuamrbzfj mcj clvfa systfk glr prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas glr prfpmrbch,
amucinbch, mcj kmcmhbch m gmc gucjfj prlefit‛ (Jfg. Tfpay ==). Ms m gmaadmi`
plsbtblc, Jfgfcjmcts mssfrt tnmt fvfc bg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jbrfitfj tl mc
mdstrmit ilcifpt, bts fafkfcts ‚ wnfc ilcsbjfrfj ms ‑mc lrjfrfj
ilkdbcmtblc‛ ‚ trmcsglrk bts iambks bctl pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg tnmt
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4: lg 9=
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bjfm. (Jfg. Dr. =6-=>0 Jfg. Tfpay ==-=4). Mppaybch tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt‒s twl-
stfp grmkfwlr`, mcj hubjfj dy tnf rfifct prfifjfct jbsiussfj mdlvf, tnf
Ilurt mhrffs wbtn _ambctbgg tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct iambks m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf
mdstrmit bjfm.
=. Znf Iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct Mrf Jbrfitfj Zlwmrj m _mtfct-Bcfabhbdaf Ilcifpt
Znf „>>8 _mtfct‒s iambks mrf jbrfitfj tl tnf ilcifpt lg irlwj-gucjbch lr
gmc-gucjbch, b.f., rmbsbch gucjs glr m prlefit grlk bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas bc
fxinmchf glr bcifctbvfs. Xnftnfr tnf mdstrmit bjfm bc pamy nfrf bs jfgbcfj ms
‑irlwj-gucjbch,‛ ‑irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,‛ ‑gmc-gucjbch,‛ ‑bcifctbvf-dmsfj
pmtrlcmhf,‛ ‑bcifctbvbzfj irlwj-gucjbch,‛ lr slkf ltnfr ilkdbcmtblc lg tnfsf
wlrjs bs lg cl klkfct5 tnf mdstrmit ilcifpt mt pamy bc tnf _mtfct rfkmbcs tnf
smkf. Iambk = drlmjay rfibtfs m ‑systfk glr kmr`ftbch mcj gucjbch lcf lr
klrf prlefits lg mc mrtbst‛ („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-97) mcj tnf spfibgbimtblc
jfsirbdfs tnf bcvfctblc ms ‑kftnljs mcj systfks glr ldtmbcbch gbcmcibch grlk
bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas tl prljuif m irfmtbvf wlr` bc fxinmchf glr mc
fctbtafkfct grlk tnf mutnlr lg tnf wlr`‛ (bj. mt ila.= a.=6-4?). Znfsf iambks mrf
squmrfay mdlut pmtrlcmhf ‚ m ilcifpt tnmt bs ‑dfylcj qufstblc lg mcibfct
abcfmhf.‛ duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966. (Yff masl EM^ Fx. :: (Fxpfrt Tfplrt lg
Ftnmc Klaabi`) mt · =? (cltbch tnmt ‑lggfrbch rfwmrjs glr vmrblus afvfas lg
gbcmcibma supplrt‛ nms m ‑nbstlry jmtbch dmi` ifcturbfs‛ mcj bs tnf ‑smkf
mpprlmin tm`fc dy Ptnf _udabi Drlmjimstbch Yfrvbif[ mcj PCmtblcma _udabi
Tmjbl[‛)).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 46 lg 9=
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Klrflvfr, tnbs ilcifpt lg bcifctbvf-dmsfj gucjbch bs bcilctfstmday
sbkbamr tl ltnfr ‑gucjmkfctma filclkbi ilcifpts,‛ mcj tl ltnfr typfs lg
‑lrhmcbzbch nukmc mitbvbty,‛ dltn lg wnbin nmvf dffc glucj tl df mdstrmit
bjfms dy tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mcj tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt. Yff , f.h., Mabif , =9: Y. It.
mt 4968 (bctfrkfjbmtfj sfttafkfct)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7== (rbs` nfjhbch)0 LB_
Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9 (lggfr-dmsfj prbif lptbkbzmtblc)0
duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966 (trmcsmitblc pfrglrkmcif humrmctff)0 Vatrmkfribma
BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=6 (usbch mjvfrtbsbch ms mc fxinmchf lr iurrfciy)0 IFZ , 887
G.9j mt =9:8 (jmtm ilaafitblc)0 Miifcturf Haldma Yfrvs., HkdN v. Hubjfwbrf
Ylgtwmrf, Bci., 84> G.9j =997, =9:7 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=9) (hfcfrmtbch tms`s bc mc
bcsurmcif lrhmcbzmtblc)0 _amcft Dbchl , 687 G. Mpp‒x mt =??> (kmcmhbch m hmkf
lg dbchl). Eust dfimusf tnf iambks jl clt prffkpt maa irlwj-gucjbch jlfs clt
km`f tnfk mcy afss mdstrmit. Yff Dbas`b , 67= V.Y. mt 7=4 (‑Gall` fstmdabsnfj
tnmt abkbtbch mc mdstrmit bjfm tl lcf gbfaj lg usf lr mjjbch tl`fc plstslautblc
ilkplcfcts jbj clt km`f tnf ilcifpt pmtfctmdaf.‛)0 LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚,
4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9 (‑Mcj tnmt tnf iambks jl clt prffkpt maa prbif
lptbkbzmtblc lr kmy df abkbtfj tl prbif lptbkbzmtblc bc tnf f-ilkkfrif sfttbch
jl clt km`f tnfk mcy afss mdstrmit.‛)0 sff masl duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966
(ilaafitbch imsfs).=9
=9 Iurblusay, bc mrhubch tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct jlfs clt prffkpt maa irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,Jfgfcjmcts prlvbjf ms mc fxmkpaf tnmt ‑clcf lg tnf prblr mrt rfgfrfcifs prljuifj dy@bi`stmrtfr wluaj nmvf dffc prffkptfj‛ (Jfg. Dr. =:), dut Jfgfcjmcts jl clt plbct tlmcy prfsfct-jmy irlwj-gucjbch pamtglrk tnmt wluaj clt df prffkptfj.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 47 lg 9=
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4. Znfrf Mrf Cl Mjjbtblcma Fafkfcts Yuggbibfct tl Zrmcsglrk tnfCmturf lg tnf Iambk
Cltnbch mdlut tnf „>>8 _mtfct trmcsglrks tnf ilcifpt lg irlwj-gucjbch
bctl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr. Dfylcj tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg pmtrlcmhf, tnf
iambks kfrfay rfibtf ‑wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf ilcvfctblcma mitbvbtbfs,‛ dy
rfqubrbch fbtnfr ilcvfctblcma ilkputfr mitbvbtbfs lr rlutbcf jmtm-hmtnfrbch
stfps. Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4962 (matfrmtblcs lkbttfj). Ilcsbjfrfj bcjbvbjumaay
lr tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj ilkdbcmtblc, tnf iambk fafkfcts gmba ‑tl
„trmcsglrk‒ tnf iambkfj mdstrmit bjfm bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj. mt
4968 (ibtmtblc lkbttfj). Glr fxmkpaf, Iambk = rfibtfs ‑mppabimtblc prlhrmks‛
prlvbjbch ‑slgtwmrf tllas‛ tl kmcmhf prlefits, trmcskbttbch mcj rfifbvbch ‑lggfr
jmtm‛ mcj ‑miifptmcif jmtm,‛ ‑rfhbstfrbch ilctmit mcj kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc‛ lg
bcjbvbjumas bc m jmtmdmsf, mcj prlvbjbch ‑slgtwmrf tllas‛ tl ilkkucbimtf wbtn
tnlsf bc tnf jmtmdmsf. („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-79). Eust ms bc Mabif , ‑maa lg
tnfsf ilkputfr gucitblcs mrf wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf, ilcvfctblcma mitbvbtbfs
prfvblusay `clwc tl tnf bcjustry.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4962 (bctfrcma qultmtblc
kmr`s mcj matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sff bj. (gbcjbch tnmt tnf ‑usf lg m ilkputfr tl
irfmtf fafitrlcbi rfilrjs, trmi` kuatbpaf trmcsmitblcs, mcj bssuf sbkuatmcflus
bcstruitblcs‛ wms clt mc bcvfctbvf ilcifpt)0 duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966 (‑Znmt
m ilkputfr rfifbvfs mcj sfcjs tnf bcglrkmtblc lvfr m cftwlr` ‚ wbtn cl
gurtnfr spfibgbimtblc ‚ bs clt fvfc mrhumday bcvfctbvf.‛)0 Vatrmkfribma BB , 884
G.9j mt 8=7 (‑PZ[nf stfps lg ilcsuatbch mcj upjmtbch mc mitbvbty alh rfprfsfct
bcsbhcbgbimct „jmtm-hmtnfrbch stfps,‒ ... mcj tnus mjj cltnbch lg prmitbima
sbhcbgbimcif tl tnf ucjfraybch mdstrmit bjfm.‛ (ibtmtblc lkbttfj))0 Dmcilrp Yfrvs.,
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 48 lg 9=
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7>8 G.9j mt =48> (nlajbch m ilkputfr ‑fkpalyfj lcay glr bts klst dmsbi
gucitblc ... jlfs clt bkplsf kfmcbchgua abkbts lc tnf silpf lg tnlsf iambks‛).
Fvfc tnbs ‑lrjfrfj ilkdbcmtblc lg stfps rfibtfs mc mdstrmitblc.‛
Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=6. Znf prlifss lg plstbch m prlefit lcabcf,
prlvbjbch jbggfrfct afvfas lg bcifctbvfs glr jbggfrfct afvfas lg gucjs, stlrbch tnf
bcglrkmtblc lg bcjbvbjumas wnl miifpt lggfrs glr bcifctbvfs bc m jmtmdmsf, mcj
prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tl ilctmit tnf bcjbvbjumas tnrluhn tnf jmtmdmsf ‑maa
jfsirbdf mc mdstrmit bjfm, jfvlbj lg m ilcirftf lr tmchbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj.
Jfgfcjmcts‒ mrhukfcts tnmt tnf iambk abkbtmtblcs spfaa lut ‑m pmrtbiuamr systfk
tnmt maalws usfrs tl mutlkmtbimaay irfmtf, kmcmhf, mcj gucj tnfbr lwc prlefits
usbch m spfibgbi ilaafitblc lg slgtwmrf tllas tnmt mrf lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf‛
mrf sbkpay ucmvmbabch. (Jfg. Dr. =:). Klrf tl tnf plbct, Jfgfcjmcts‒ rfpftbtblc
lg wlrjs ab`f ‑pmrtbiuamr‛ mcj ‑spfibgbi‛ bc dlaj btmabis wnfc rfgfrrbch tl tnf
iambks bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct jlfs clt km`f tnfk sl. (Yff bj. mt =:-=6). Mcj wnbaf
abkbtmtblcs ab`f ‑lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf‛ mcj tnf ilcstruitblc lg
‑fctbtafkfct‛ tl bciaujf ‑mt afmst lcf prljuit mcj mt afmst lcf sfrvbif mcj mt
afmst lcf pmtrlcmhf,‛ kbhnt mjj slkf jfhrff lg pmrtbiuamrbty, tnf ilcifpt
fkdljbfj dy tnf kmelrbty lg tnf abkbtmtblcs jfsirbdfs=: lcay tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg
bcifctbvf-dmsfj gucjbch lr pmtrlcmhf bkpafkfctfj lcabcf. Yff Vatrmkfribma BB ,
884 G.9j mt 8=60 sff masl Gall` , :98 V.Y. mt 629 (rfefitbch tnf mrhukfct ‑tnmt
=: Jfgfcjmcts‒ sfkmctbi safbhnt-lg-nmcj tnmt tnf iambks jl clt ‑jfsirbdf‛ mc mdstrmit bjfm,dut bcstfmj mrf ‑jbrfitfj tlwmrj‛ m systfk bcilrplrmtbch slgtwmrf glr kmcmhbch m gmc-gucjfj prlefit (vbz., wnmt tnbs Ilurt nms jftfrkbcfj bs mc mdstrmit bjfm), nms cl dmsbs
bc tnf amw mcj wbaa clt df mjjrfssfj gurtnfr. (Jfg. Tfpay =?-==).
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4> lg 9=
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bg m prlifss mppabimtblc bkpafkfcts m prbcibpaf bc slkf spfibgbi gmsnblc, bt
mutlkmtbimaay gmaas wbtnbc tnf pmtfctmdaf sudefit kmttfr lg PYfitblc[ =?=‛)0 ig.
JJT Nlajbchs , 889 G.9j mt =46> (gbcjbch iambks fabhbdaf wnfrf tnfy rfibtfj
spfibgbi kmcbpuamtblc tnmt ‑lvfrPrljf[ tnf rlutbcf mcj ilcvfctblcma sfqufcif lg
fvfcts‛ prfvfctbch tnf ‑ilkputfr cftwlr` Pgrlk[ lpfrmtbch bc bts clrkma,
fxpfitfj kmccfr‛). Bcjffj, Jfgfcjmcts‒ lwc fxpfrt mi`clwafjhfs tnmt tnf
„>>8 _mtfct bs m ‑dusbcfss kljfa‛ bkpafkfctfj wbtn m ‑cftwlr`-dmsfj slgtwmrf
slautblc.‛ (EM^ Fx. :7 (Fxpfrt Tfplrt lg Kmrsnmaa Klcrlf) mt · 6> (‑Znf „>>8
_mtfct jfsirbdfs m systfk tnmt ilkdbcfs tnf dusbcfss kljfa lg slabibtbch gucjs
jbrfitay grlk bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas tl gbcmcif tnf irfmtblc, ilkpaftblc, lr
jbstrbdutblc lg m irfmtbvf wlr`, mklch ltnfr tnbchs, wbtn m cftwlr`-dmsfj
slgtwmrf slautblc.‛)).
Klrflvfr, tnf amchumhf lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct btsfag dfabfs Jfgfcjmcts‒
mrhukfcts mdlut m ‑pmrtbiuamr systfk‛ mcj ‑spfibgbi slgtwmrf tllas.‛ Ms
_ambctbgg plbcts lut (_a. Lpp. 6-7), tnf „>>8 _mtfct spfibgbimtblc fxprfssay jlfs
clt abkbt tnf bcvfctblc tl mcy pmrtbiuamr systfk, slgtwmrf, lr nmrjwmrf5
tnf ilkputfr systfks … kmy bciaujf vmrblus nmrjwmrf
mcj lpfrmtbch slgtwmrf … glr ruccbch slgtwmrfprlhrmks, drlwsbch tnf Bctfrcft, ilkkucbimtbch
mcj/lr lpfrmtbch wbtn mcy jfvbif, bciaujbch, glrfxmkpaf, m prbctfr, m jbspamy, m `fydlmrj, m klusf, mkljfk, m pnlcf, m wbrfafss jfvbif, tnf Bctfrcft, m
ilkputfr cftwlr`, m slucj systfk, mcj mcy ltnfrbctfrcma lr fxtfrcma jfvbif.
(„>>8 _mtfct mt ila.> a.6:-78). Znf spfibgbimtblc gurtnfr mjkbts tnmt tnf
bcvfctblc ‑kmy km`f usf lg m ilkdbcmtblc lg fxbstbch prlvfc dusbcfss kljfas
bciaujbch dmc`bch, pmtrlc systfks, kfrinmcjbsbch pmrtcfrsnbps, jbrfit
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 42 lg 9=
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9?
kmr`ftbch, pudabsnbch, gbaf snmrbch mcj bctfrcft cftwlr`bchP.[‛ (Bj. mt ila.:
a.==-=6). Bt drlmjay mssfrts tnmt tnf pmtfctfj systfk ‑kmy df sft up mcj ruc
lc tnf Xlraj-Xbjf-Xfd, tnus usbch m paurmabty lg wfdsbtfs mcj wfd pmhfs,
usbch, glr fxmkpaf, ntka, xka, mcj emvm prlhrmkkbchP.[‛ (Bj. mt ila.2 a.=6-=8).
Mt dfst, tnf iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct jfsirbdf tnf usf lg tnf Bctfrcft lr m
ilkputfr cftwlr` tl km`f bjfctbgybch mcj slabibtbch gucjs grlk pltfctbma
pmtrlcs fmsbfr mcj klrf fggbibfct. ‑Dut rfaybch lc m ilkputfr tl pfrglrk
rlutbcf tms`s klrf qubi`ay lr klrf miiurmtfay bs bcsuggbibfct tl rfcjfr m iambk
pmtfct fabhbdaf.‛ LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9. Xnbaf tnf
ilcifpt lg gmc-gucjbch kmy nmvf dffc kmjf m klrf rfmabstbi mcj grubtgua
fcjfmvlr wbtn tnf mjvfct lg wbjfsprfmj Bctfrcft miifss, ‑ialm`bch Ptnmt[
ltnfrwbsf mdstrmit bjfm bc tnf hubsf lg m ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj iambk‛ jlfs
clt drbch bt wbtnbc Yfitblc =?=. Ig. KyYpmif , 784 G.9j mt =478 (Kmyfr, E.,
jbssfctbch). ]ubtf tl tnf ilctrmry, pfrkbttbch tnbs typf lg iambk wluaj ‑rfcjfr
tnf sudefit kmttfr fabhbdbabty irbtfrbm bc Yfitblc =?= vbrtumaay kfmcbchafss‛ hbvfc
‑tnf udbqubty lg ilkputfrs bc ilctfkplrmry abgf.‛ Bj. Miilrjbchay, dfimusf tnf
„>>8 _mtfct iambks tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg bcifctbvf-dmsfj gmc-gucjbch mcj ami`s
mc ‑bcvfctbvf ilcifpt‛ suggbibfct tl ‑trmcsglrk‛ tnf iambkfj sudefit kmttfr bctl
m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc lg tnmt bjfm, bt bs bcvmabj ucjfr Yfitblc =?=.=6
=6 Dfimusf tnf ‑tnrfsnlaj bcqubry‛ lg pmtfct-fabhbdbabty bs jbsplsbtbvf lg bcvmabjbty, tnf Ilurtcffj clt, mcj bcjffj snluaj clt, jfibjf tnf pmrtbfs‒ ltnfr vmabjbty ilctfctblcs rfamtfj tlldvbluscfss, bcvfctlrsnbp, mcj jfgbcbtfcfss. Yff Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26? (nlajbch tnmtbg m iambk bs clt jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, bt ‑kust df rfefitfj fvfc bg btkffts maa lg tnf ltnfr afhma rfqubrfkfcts lg pmtfctmdbabty‛)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?4
(nlajbch tnmt tnf pmtfct-fabhbdbabty bcqubry bs m ‑tnrfsnlaj tfst‛). Znf Ilurt ldsfrvfs tnmtkmcy lg tnf mrhukfcts kmjf glr bcvmabjbty lc tnfsf ltnfr hrlucjs lcay dlastfr tnffabhbdbabty jftfrkbcmtblc. Cltmday, glr fxmkpaf, kuin lg tnf prblr mrt fvbjfcif wms clt
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 9? lg 9=
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ILCIAVYBLC
Glr tnf glrfhlbch rfmslcs, tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf
sudefit kmttfr. _ambctbgg‒s kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lg bcvmabjbty lg tnf
„>>8 _mtfct bs HTMCZFJ, mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lg
vmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs JFCBFJ. Znf Iafr` lg Ilurt bs jbrfitfj tl
tfrkbcmtf maa pfcjbch kltblcs, mjelurc maa rfkmbcbch jmtfs, mcj ialsf tnbs
imsf.
YL LTJFTFJ.
Jmtfj5 Eucf 42, 4?=6Cfw Rlr`, Cfw Rlr` \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
@MZNFTBCF _LA@ GMBAAMVcbtfj Ytmtfs Jbstrbit Eujhf
btsfag pmtfctfj, suhhfstbch tnmt tnbs fvbjfcif lpfrmtfj bc tnf prlvbcif lg bjfms. Mcj btwluaj clt df surprbsbch tnmt m purplrtfj sfilcj bcvfctlr wluaj jbsiambk nmvbch‑bcvfctfj‛ mc mdstrmit bjfm.
Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 9= lg 9=