Challenges of Sustainable Urbanization

Photo: Sharif Rahman

Lead article

PPRC NewsletterIssue 4 - January 2017

Editor:HossainZillurRahman

Articlecontributionsfrom:HossainZillurRahman

Editorialteam:ShaerReaz

JoyantaKumarPaulAshikAdnanKanetaZillur

Website:www.pprcbd.org

Email:pprc@pprcbd.org

jkpaul67@gmail.comashik_adn@gmail.com

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Message from the Chairman

Howwill2016beremembered?Momentousonitsownorcurtain‐raiser on changes to come in the global order of things bothpolitical and economic? With President Trump about to beinaugurated, EU’s economic and ideological future in disarray,Middle East sinking into further chaos, China’s infrastructuralambitions likely to rewrite growth trajectories of the globaleconomy, Russia resurgent in the world of real politics, MDGstransitingtotheSDGsandBangladeshmid‐waythroughitscurrentparliamentaryterm,2016willsurelygodownasifnothingelseawatershedyear.

ForusatPPRC,thechallengewasoneofensuringrelevanceinchoiceofresearchissuesandadvocacyinitiativesinthemidstofsuchmulti‐dimensionalchanges.Wepursuedatwo‐prongedapproachtofulfillthisgoal‐one,tokeepourfocusgroundedingrass‐rootdynamics, and the other, to embrace key emerging agendas in national and globaldiscourses.TakingcuefromtheSDGthemeof‘leavingnoonebehind’,PPRCinpartnershipwithSEHDinitiatedamulti‐yearresearch‐advocacyprojectonmarginalizedandexcludedgroups. The big‐push has been on our urban and health agendas. Organizing theinternationalconferenceonurbanpovertyinSeptembercappedayearofresearchontheurbanspectrumandhaslaidthefoundationforthenextroundofPPRC’surbanresearchwhichwillbeontheeconomicsofurbanization.Onhealth,wehavebeenpreparingthenextroundofUHCadvocacywhichwilltakeofffromJanuary,2017.Adifferentmacrofocushasbeenapoliticaleconomylookatissuesofgovernance.Forourfocusonthegrass‐root,we are looking at coastal fishermen as well as on innovations in land and legalempowerment inthenortherndistricts.PPRCisalsoengagedonamulti‐yearprocessmonitoringofkeysafetynetprograms.Ontheadvocacyfront,PPRChasbeenakeypartnerinlaunchingacivicplatform‐SROTA‐onissuesofsaferoadsandtransport.TheseandotherspromisetomarkexcitingnewengagementforPPRCinthecomingyearandbeyond.

WhenPPRCwas founded20yearsago,ourmissionstatementread“ ...advancing thecausesofempowermentandresponsiblecitizenry,eliminationofpoverty,promotionofinnovationsandqualitypresenceinglobaldiscourses…”.Theseremainasrelevantaseverandwillcontinuetoguideourefforts.HappyNewYear!

HossainZillurRahman

Snapshots

Above: PPRC staff atwork.

Left: Newest memberofPPRCSecurityteam.

New faces at PPRC

Gazi Mizanur Rahman, retiredJ o i n t S e c r e t a r y t o t h e government, joins PPRC asProject Coordinator on SafetyNetSpotChecksProject.

Ashik Adnan joins PPRC as

ResearchAssociateintheurban

team.

Uchan Aoung joins PPRC asResearchOfficerontheExcludedand Marginalized GroupsProject, A EU‐funded projectimplemented in partnershipwithSEHD,CCDBandGBK.

StayupdatedwithPPRCbyfollowingHossainZillurRahmanonTwitter:@hossainzillur

NewUNDPCountryDirectorSudiptoMukerjeeandPPRCChairmandiscussing transformativeagenda forBangladeshon5November,2016.

People

Mike Robson, Country Representative, FAO impressed ussimultaneously being a ‘big picture’ thinker and a hands‐onprofessional.PPRCChairmanwithMikeathisfarewelleventatFAOcountryoffice.

Ambassador Liaquat Ali Choudhury, PPRCSeniorFellowwasacorememberoftheresearchteamonurbanspectrumstudy.Hesays“..rapidurbanization poses many challenges forBangladesh. PPRC is working on a verycomprehensive urban agenda for Bangladeshand hopefully in the future PPRC will makeimportantcontributioninthisarea.”

AMMNasiruddin,formerHealthSecretaryandPPRCSeniorFellow,isacorememberofthePPRCteamonhealthandinstitutionaltransformationissues.HeconductedthedistrictlevelworkshopsonlandandlegalempowermentprojectofBRACduring 8‐10 october at Rajshahi, Natore andNaogaonaspartoftheongoingPPRCstudyoftheBRAC'sPRIproject.

PPRC Chairman at Aga KhanNationalCouncilorganizedlaunchof M. Keshavjee’s book, Into thatHeavenofFreedomatJamatkhana,Bashundara R/A on 3 December,2016.

PPRC Events

SafetyNetSpotChecksprojectSigningCeremonyattheconferenceroomoftheDepartmentforDisasterManagementatMohakhalion10.02.2016.

LaunchoftheUHCConferenceProceedingsVolumeandPolicyDialogueon“HealthchallengesofSDGs:PathtoUHCinBangladesh”withtheHonourableMinisterofHealthandFamilyWelfare.MohammedNasim,MPandNationalProfessorBrig.(Rtd.)AbdulMalik.

Pre‐fieldworkorientationworkshoponsafetynetspotchecksRound2withSecretary,MoDMR,DGofDDMandDr.SalehuddinAhmedattheconferencehallofDDMon13thDecember,2016.

A.M.M.NasiruddinandPPRCteaminfielddialoguewithwomenstakeholdersinNatorefortheassessmentstudyonBRAC'sPropertyRightsInitiativeProject.

LaunchofthePolicyBriefoftheInternationalUrbanPovertyConferencesharedwiththeHonourableMinisterofPlanningAHMMustafaKamal,FCA,MP.

JointinitiativebyPPRC,SEHD,CCDBandJBKonmappingthe8milliondispersedandmarginalizedpopulationofBangladesh.

PPRC NewsInternational conference on urban poverty

CappingtheyearlongjointPPRC‐BBSurbandata‐baseempiricalwork,PPRCandBBSwithsupportfromTheWorldBankandUNDPorganizedaninternationalconferenceonurbanpovertyon24‐25September,2016inDhaka.Theconferencebroughttogetheranextraordinarilyrichcross‐sectionofexpertsandparticipantswithfromhomeandabroadtoreviewanalyticalperspectives,solutionprioritiesandwaysforward.Amongothers,AbdulMannan,MP,StateMinisterforFinanceandPlanning,ProfessorWahiduddinMahmud,WorldBankChiefEconomistforSouth

AsiaMartinRama,MingZhang,SectorManager,Urban,SouthAsia,WorldBank,ProfessorDavidHulme,GlobalDevelopmentInstitute,UniversityofManchester,ArchitectDr.AdnanMorshed,CatholicUniversityofUSA,WashingtonD.C.,NickBeresford,ActingCountryDirector,UNDP,ProfessorNazrulIslam,Chairman,CentreforUrbanStudies,NationalProfessorBrigadier(Retd.)AbdulMalek,Chairman,NationalHeartFoundation,Dr.ZafrullahChowdhury,Founder,GanoShasthayaKendra,ProfessorSekandarKhan,Vice‐Chancellor,EastDeltaUniversity,Dr.

SalehuddinAhmed,formerGovernor,BangladeshBank,EdouardBeigbeder,CountryRepresentative,UNICEF,MikeRobson,CountryRepresentative,FAO,Dr.KhairulIslam,CountryDirector,WaterAid,AbdulKarim,ManagingDirector,PKSFaswellassectoralexpertsandacademicsfromleadinggovernmentagencies,developmentpartnersandnationalresearchinstitutionsandNGO,CBOandlocalgovernmentleadersparticipated.APolicyBriefsummarizingkeyfindingsandmessageswassubsequentlysharedwithpolicy‐makers.

24-25 September, Dhaka

International conference on urban poverty

PPRC News

Capacity Building

PowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)andBangladeshBureauofStatistics(BBS)withsupportfromTheWorldBanklauncheda2‐daycapacity‐buildingworkshoponurbanresearchattheBBSauditoriuminAgargaon.PPRCandBBSarelong‐termpartnersindevelopingurbanstatisticsforBangladesh.TheworkshopfollowstherecentlyconcludedInternationalConferenceonUrbanPovertyhostedbyPPRCandBBS.Theworkshopwasaimedtotrainyoungresearchersfromuniversities,researchorganizations,NGOs,investigativejournalistsaswellmembersofPPRCandBBS.ProfessorWahiduddinMahmudwasthechiefguestattheinauguralsessionwhichincludedthepresenceofK.M.MozammelHoq,Secretary,StatisticsandMd.AbdulWazed,DG,BBS.PPRCchairmanHossainZillurRahmanprovidedthekeynoteaddress.The2‐dayworkshophadsixsessionsfocusedonnewadvancesinquantitativeandqualitativeresearchtechniques.

PPRC and BBS jointly organize capacity building workshop on research methodology for young professionals at BBS on 28-29 September, 2016

PPRC examines interface of governance, political development and economic

performance in UNDP supported study

Notwithstandingtherelativepoliticalcalmandstablemacroeconomicfundamentalsthatfollowedtheheightenedboutsofpoliticalviolenceandconflictsin2013and2015,Bangladeshcontinuestofinditchallengingtoovercomeanentrenchedsenseofpoliticaluncertaintythatisalsoimpactingonthequalityandpaceofitseconomicperformance.Atindependence,thedominantconcernwasabouttheeconomicfutureofthecountry.Overthecourseofforty‐fiveyears,thisconcernwassignificantlymitigatedasapoverty‐stricken,disaster‐pronevulnerableeconomyhasconfoundedobserversathomeandabroadalikeinscriptingaremarkablestoryofeconomictransformationandresilience.Progressineconomicdevelopment,however,wasnotmirroredinprogressinpoliticaldevelopment.Atindependence,politicshadseemedtomanyasthelesserchallenge.Inatwistofirony,itisdeficitsinpoliticaldevelopmenttodaythatappeartostandinthewayofanacceleratedrealizationofitstrueeconomicpotentialandthefoundationaldreamofaninclusive,humanesociety.Exploringtheseurgentthemes,PPRCwithsupportfromUNDPundertookanempiricalstudyduring2016.

PPRC and Municipal Association of Bangladesh sign MOU on joint initiative on healthy cities

AMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)wassignedbetweenPowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)andMunicipalAssociationofBangladesh(MAB)forjointadvocacyatmunicipalissuesonissuesofmunicipalstrengthening,urbanresilience,urbanPoverty,urbanhealth,capacitybuildingetc.ActivitiesunderthisMOUarelikelytokick‐offinJanuary,2017underaprojecttitledPRERONA.

Human aspects of aquaculture/fishery sector

PPRCundertooktwosmallerstudiesfocusedonhumanaspectsofthegrowingaquaculture/fisherysector.Thefirstwason“EndEvaluationofComplianceofILOCoreLaborStandardsandtheBangladeshLaborAct,2006(theBLA)intheBangladeshShrimpandFishProcessingPlants(SFPPs)"fortheSolidarityCenter‐Bangladesh/AmericanCenterforInternationalLaborSolidaritySolidarityCenter.TheotherwasastudyonanIn‐depthReviewofthePowerStructureinHilsaValueChainLevelcommissionedbyWorldfishfortheECOFISH‐BDproject.ThisfollowsanearlierPPRCstudyonhilshafishermen.

At a glance

Above: PPRC Chairman Hossain ZillurRahman joins launch of BRAC’s UrbanInnovation Forum at the BangabandhuSheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theatreauditoriumon28October2016.

Left:ExecutiveChairman,PowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)delivering

lecturesatNDC,Dhaka.Dr.Rahmanisafrequentresource

personatNDC

Left:FoundationaltrainingworkshopforPPRCfieldteamsonspotchecksforprocessmonitoringof5majorsafetynetprogramsimplementedbyDDM

CertificateDistributiontoVolunteersofInternationalUrbanpovertyConferencefromUnitedInternationalUniversityatPPRC

DinnermeetingwithSecretary,SIDandDG,BBSonurbandata-baseandurbanpovertystatisticsproject,Dhamondi,17thAugust,2016.

Above:PPRCChairmanLaunchesNSU’s25YearsSouvenirVolume.

Upcoming

PPRC in discussion with UNDP for a research initiative on economics of urbanization

Aretheurbanpooronlyapublicpolicyconcernrelatedtothesocialprotectionagenda?Aretheyonlyamarginaleconomicsub‐sectorintheurbaneconomy?Oraretheyanintegralcomponentofanintegratedurbaneconomywheretheformalandinformalinterfaceinnecessaryandcomplexways?AretheurbanpoorsubsumedwithinalargerdiscourseofSMEthatcarriesthepotentialofbeingagrowthdriver?Toexplorethesecriticalquestions,PPRCisindiscussiontolaunchanewphaseofitsurbanworkthatwillincludeamongothersaground‐breakingconferenceontheInformalEconomy.

Dissemination event

on newly completed

research on Land

Conflicts, Property Rights

and Legal Empowerment

Adisseminationeventofthenewly

completedresearchonarapid

assessmentofBRAC'sPropertyRights

InitiativeProjectwillbeheldon17

January,2016attheBRACCentre.

PPRC to facilitate launch of

Healthy Bangladesh platform

FollowingtheinternationalconferenceonRealizingUHCGoalsinApril,2015,PPRC

andpartnershavebeenpursuingthepossibilityoflaunchingofamulti‐stakeholder

coalitiontocontributetothescalingupoftheUHCagendainBangladesh.This

platform,titledHEALTHYBANGLADESH,willbelaunchedinearly2017andwillfocus

onbothpolicyandgrass‐rootadvocacyonaholistichealthagendaincludingUHC.

PPRCisindialoguetopartnerUSAID‐supportedHFGprojectofAbtAssociatesona

districtdialogueseriesonUHCduring2017.

Challenges of Sustainable UrbanizationHossain Zillur Rahman

Urbanizationisacompellingandgrowingreality.ProjectionsindicatethaturbanpopulationinBangladeshwillrisetobetween91and102millionby2050whichwillbe44%oftotalpopulation.[1]Thescopeoftheurbanquestion,however,cannotbededucedsimplyfromtheprojectedsizeoftheurbanpopulation.Theerstwhilerural‐urbandivideisgivingwaytoarural‐urbancontinuum.[2]Farfrombeingadiscretecollectionofcitiesandtowns,urbanizationisalargertransformationalprocessimpactingonhownaturalresourcessuchaslandandwaterareutilized,howeconomicactivitiesareshaped,andevenhowlife‐stylesareimagined.Managedorignored,urbanizationthusrepresentsafar‐reachingparadigmshiftthatwillandindeedhascometodetermineoureconomicprospectsandthequalityofoursociallives.Whileurbanizationhascometobe

aninevitablefeatureofthedevelopmentprocess,boththepatternofandconsequencesof

urbanizationforindividualcountriesisnotagiven.UrbanizationinBangladeshismarkedbyitsowndistinctivefeatures.Fourstandout.Bangladeshisinmanywaysunique

inthatitprioritizedcityconnectingruralroadsi.e.theso‐calledfeederroads,wellbeforeitsurbanexpansion.[3]Basedontheserural‐to‐cityandcity‐to‐citylinkages,anurbanspectrumhasemergedwhereinurbancharacteristicsstretchrightfromthevillageallthewaythroughruralmarketcentres,ruraltowns,municipalities,districttownsuptothemetropolitanrealitiesofupscaleDhaka.Urbanaspirationsarenowdefiningevenrurallife‐styles.Aseconddistinctivefeatureisthe

contextofextremelandscarcity

withinwhichurbanizationistaking

place.Apopulationofover150

millionissqueezedwithinalandmass

ofonly144000sq.km.Notonlyis

averagedensityfortheentirecountry

high–1016persq.kmin2011and

expectedtodoubleby2050–

populationdensityinthecitiesis

considerablyhigherthoughitvaries

acrosstheurbanspectrum.Dhaka's

densitystandsatanastounding

49,182persq.km.(2011).

CorrespondingfigureforChittagong

CityCorporationis16,613persq.km.

(2011).Overall,urbanizationis

markedbyanintensecompetitionfor

landthat,intheabsenceofan

effectiveregimeoflandallocation,is

fuelingover‐crowding,urbanchaos

andslumgrowth.Thethirddistinctivefeatureishow

theurbanizationprocessinterfaceswiththeeconomicgrowthprocess.BothpopulationdensityandeconomicdensitymapsshowconcentrationofeconomicallysignificanturbangrowthalongsidekeytransportcorridorsmostnotablyDhaka‐ChittagongandlatterlyDhaka‐northwest,Dhaka‐north‐eastaswellasJessore‐Benapolebordercorridor.Under‐constructionPadmaBridgehasthepotentialofopeningafurtherDhaka‐southwestgrowthcorridor.

Urgency of the urban focus

ThefourthdistinctivefeatureoftheurbanizationprocessinBangladeshrelatestothedynamicsunderlyingDhaka'sgrowthasaprimatecity.Dhakahasalwaysbeenthe'first'cityofBangladeshbutitscontemporaryemergenceasaprimatecityisuniqueinthatthisprimacyhastoaconsiderableextentbeenpolicy‐induced,anoutcomeofextremecentralizationofauthorityanddecision‐making.Suchpolicy‐inducedprimacyisahistoricreversalofarelativelymoredecentralizedpast.Thepolicy‐inducedexaggeratedprimacyofDhakanotonlyimperilsDhaka'sownsustainableurbanfuturebutalsoservetoensurebelow‐

potentialgrowthofthemofussil.Cross‐countryexperiencesthus

showthatbeyondbeinganinevitablecorollaryofdevelopment,urbanizationcanholdbothpromiseandproblemsforacountry.Whichfeaturewillcometodominatewillverymuchdependonthenatureandefficacyofthecountry'spolicyengagementwiththeurbanagenda.AsBangladesh'sgoalshiftsupwardtowardsattainingahighmiddleincomestatus,theneedforbringingtheurbanagendaincludingtheurbanpovertyagendaintothepolicycentre‐stagethusbecomesmoreurgent.Atonelevel,urbanizationhas

generallybeenastronggrowthdriver

withpositiveimpactonpovertyreduction.Despitefallingpovertyrates,however,urbanpovertyremainshighat21%(2010).MorerecentestimatesfromthePPRC‐BBScity‐levelsurveysindicatesimilarpercentages.Ofequalconcernisthatrapidurbanizationhasmeantaspatialrelocationofpovertyfromruraltourbanareas:urbanshareoftotalpoorinBangladeshrosefrom10%in1991/92to18%in2010.[4]Notsurprisingly,therateofgrowthofslumpopulationhasbeenconsistentlyhigherthantherateofgrowthofurbanpopulationassuch.

Urban realities: The evidence from new data

Urbanincomerealitiesshowapronouncedvariationacrosstheurbanspectrum.Figure1summarizesdatafromanUNDP‐supportedGovernanceandEconomyStudyof2015[5]whichcollectedincomedataacrosstheurbanspectrumincludingrural.Thefindingshighlightadualreality:urbanincomesingeneralarehigherthanruralincomesbutwithintheurbanspectrum,thereisastrongmetropolitan‐mofussildivide.

AverageurbanincomesconcealsignificantdisparitiesandsuchdisparitiesaremostpronouncedinmetropolitanDhaka(Table1).ThelowestincomeclassenjoysaveragemonthlyincomebelowBDT8,000acrosstheentireurbanspectrum.Incontrast,thetop‐rankedincomeclassenjoysaveragemonthlyincomeofBDT284,088inDhaka(2012),BDT174,398inChittagong(2016)andBDT149,810insecondarycities

(2016).Therealityofincomedisparitiesis

furtherbroughtoutwhenonelooksattherespectiveincomesharesofeachincomeclass.SuchdisparitiesaremoststarkinDhaka.ThetopincomeclassinDhaka(2012)wascomprisedofonly5.4%ofhouseholdsbuttheyenjoyed39.9%ofallofDhaka'sincome.Incontrast,thebottom58.4%ofhouseholdsenjoyedanincomeshareofonly21%.

Therealityofincomedisparitiesisfurtherbroughtoutwhenonelooksattherespectiveincomesharesofeachincomeclass.SuchdisparitiesaremoststarkinDhaka.ThetopincomeclassinDhaka(2012)wascomprisedofonly5.4%ofhouseholdsbuttheyenjoyed39.9%ofallofDhaka'sincome.Incontrast,thebottom58.4%ofhouseholdsenjoyedanincomeshareofonly21%.

Income realities

Incomelevelsprovideoneglimpseintohouseholdrealitiesinurbancentres.Forafullerpictureofhouseholdwelfare,oneneedsalsotolookatqualityoflifeindicators(Table2).Incidenceofvulnerablehousing

whichincludesboththerelativelyinsignificantincidenceofjhupriandthemoresignificantkutchadwellingsrisesfrom5%inDhakacityto26%inChittagongcityand39.5%inthepourashavas.Thereis,however,astructuraldifferenceintermsof

housingtenure.Itappearsthatasonemovesfromthemofussiltometropolitancentre,thedominantmodeofhousingshiftsfromowner‐occupationtorentalhousing.Beyondtheissuesoftenureand

structure,qualityoflifeisalsodeterminedbyhousingadequacyandrentalsecurity.Table3describespercapitahousingspaceforvariouscategoriesofhousingacrosstheurbanspectrum.Twofindingsstandout.Percapitahousingspaceincreasesashousingstructure

improves–thisistrueacrosstheurbanspectrum.Secondly,percapitahousingspaceislowerinmetropolitancentrecomparedtothesecondarycities,afeaturethatistrueforallhousingtypes.Whatthisindicatesistheintensityofthecompetitionforlandinmetropolitancentresvis‐à‐vissecondarycitieswherebotheconomicgrowthandlandvaluesremainbelowthoseinthemetropolitancentre.

Quality of life

Withregardtosanitation,theimprovementisuniversalwithnon‐sanitarylatrine‐useaccountingforonly3%ofhouseholdsacrosstheurbanspectrum.Theemergingconcerniswithsharedlatrine‐use.Thisappearstoriseasonemovesfromthemofussiltothemoreland‐scarcerealitiesofmetropolitancentres.Ontheissueofgarbagedisposal,

indiscriminatethrowingofgarbagebyhouseholdsappearstobestronglyassociatedwithmofussillife.However,itisamootpointtowhatextentsuchbehaviorisreflectiveof

civicvaluesandtowhatextentoftheavailabilityofmunicipalservicesthatcanfacilitatemorehygienicbehavior.Withregardtoaccesstoutilities,

whileelectricityconnectionsarenearuniversal,keyconcernsarewithsupplyinterruptionsandtheaveragedailydurationofsuchinterruptions.Supplyinterruptionisnearuniversalacrosstheurbanspectrum.Thekeydifferenceemergingiswithregardtothedurationofinterruption.Dhaka'sdatarelatesto2012andotherevidenceindicatesnoteworthyimprovementinthecapitalcityinthisregard.However,bothinChittagong

andthepourashavas,thedurationofpoweroutagesremainapressingconcern.Onthequestionofaccesstopiped

watersupply,againitisDhakawhichappearstobeinthemostfavourablepositionwith96.5%havingaccess.Chittagong,despitebeingthesecond‐mostimportantcityinthecountrycansupplypipedwatertoonly59.2%ofhouseholds.Inthepourashavas,pipedwatersupplysystemremainsatanascentstagewithonlyafifthofhouseholdsbeingcovered.

Is urban poverty different?

A challenge of perspectives

Whiletherehavebeenaplethoraofstudiesandpoliciesonurbanization,someparadigmaticknowledgegapsremain.Thisisparticularlytrueforurbanpoverty.Bangladeshieconomistshavedoneacommendablejobofdeepeningunderstandingofruralpovertyandcontributingtothepolicyperspectivesthathaveovertheyearsproducedwell‐recognizedsuccessesinmitigatingsuchpoverty.However,whenitcomestourbanpoverty,thediscourseengagementhasbeensignificantlyweaker.Inpractice,therehasbeenatendencytoaddressurbanpovertythroughanuncriticalapplicationoftheruralpovertylens.Akeystrategicconcerniswhether

thetargetingparadigmthathasbeenbehindmanyofthesuccessesindealingwithruralpovertyhasthesamerelevancefordealingwithurbanpoverty.Thechallengehereinthefirststageoneofknowledgeanddiscoursegaps.Forexample,inDhakaandChittagong,astrikingnew

developmentistheprivatizationofslums.Theurbanpoorhavecometoconstitutealucrativehousingmarketforunscrupulousland‐grabbersandcorruptelementswithinthepolicyandadministrativeestablishmentswhoestablishinformalhousingsettlementsoftenondisputedpublicland.Thetypicaltargetingstrategiesthathaveworkedsowellindealingwithruralpovertyisreallyoffthemarkwhenitcomestodealingwiththesedifferentkindofvulnerabilities.Asecondcriticalgapisinthe

politicaleconomyunderstandingofurbandynamicsinparticulartheinterplayofinterestgroupsandjurisdictionalconflictsthatoftenunderpinpoorprogressonmanypolicyinitiativessuchaspublictransportation,low‐costhousing,urbanhealth,slumimprovementsaswellasmanynon‐structuralsolutionsrelatedtobehavioralnorms.Theknowledgegapsintheseareasservetoconferakindofdiscourseinvisibilitythatstandinthewayofa

morerobustcivicandpolicyengagementtoredresssuchgroundrealities.Urbanpooralsopresentseveral

policydilemmaswhoseresolutionrequirescarefulattentiontoarangeoffactors.Takethecaseofslumevictionsandoff‐cityresettlementplans.Therealproblemhereishowtopreservethefragileaccesspoorpeoplehavetotheadvantagesofferedbycities,principallyjobsandservicesessentialforsurvivalandupwardmobilitylikehealthandeducation.Livingincitiesisthebestself‐helpstrategypoorpeoplehavedevisedtoovercomepovertyandthereforegovernmentpolicieshavetobeginthinkingdifferentlyaboutthe“problem”ofinformalsettlements.Experiencehasshownthatnotonlydoresettledpopulationdriftbackinsearchofthejobopportunitiesincities,theinitialincentiveofferedtomoveoutactsasamagnetforattractingnewmigrants.

Urbanpooroftensufferfromarealityofbeing'illegalcitizens'withintheurbanscenariowithgreaterburdensofinsecurityandsocialdiscrimination.Forthesereasons,thereisaderivativeproblemofstatisticalinvisibilityfortheurbanpoorbecausepublicandprivatesectorstatisticalsystemstendtofavourthe'formal'andpreferresidentialidentityasthebasisforstatisticalinclusion.Thisispreciselythereasonwhytheinformaleconomy,despiteprovidingbyoneestimatebetween30and70%ofemployment,remainslargelyinvisibleinnationalstatistics.Overcomingthestatistical

invisibilityrepresentsbotharesearchandasocialchallenge.Socialandpolicymind‐setsoftenhavenegativeviewsontheoccupationalspacestheurbanpooroccupy.Itisthus

importantnotonlytomeasuretheurbanpoorbutalsotomakevisibleandgivelegitimacytothebroadsocialfacesoftheurbanpoor.Suchfacesmayincludestreetvendors,rickshaw‐pullers,low‐wageworkersinformalandinformalenterprises,pettyshop‐keepers,artisans,home‐basedworkers,domesticworkersetc.Theremaybeothercategoriesoftheurbanpoorwhodonotnecessarilysufferfromtheaboveproblemofstatisticalinvisibilitybutneverthelessmeritattention.Thesearelow‐salaryfixedincomeemployeesandlowermiddleclasseswhooftendonotqualifyforpolicyattentiononcurrentyardsticks.Asecondchallengewithregardto

thestatisticalinvisibilityoftheurbanpooristhecontinueduseofempiricalindicatorswhichmayhavebecome'outdated'vis‐à‐visrapidlytransformingurbanrealities.Takethe

caseofhousingstructure.InmetropolitanDhaka,thepoormaybelivinginfacilitieswhicharebetterinstructuraltermsi.e.brick‐and‐mortarinsteadofthatched,butintermsofpercapitaspace,rentalinsecurityandhousingcosts,theymaybeinnewvulnerabilitieswhichremainoutoffocusbecausetheindicator‐in‐usecontinuestobe'housingtype'.Otherexamplesofindicatorsthatmayhavebecome'outdated'areaccesstosanitationwheretheemergingconcerniswithregardtointensityoftheburdenofshared‐use.Similarly,withregardtoaccesstoutilitiessuchaselectricityandwater,'accesstoaconnection'isnolongeranadequateindicator.Itneedstobesupplementedwithnewindicators–incidenceofsupplyinterruptionsaswellasthedurationofsuchinterruptions.

Statistical invisibility and 'outdated' indicators

Aretheurbanpoorsaddledwithafaustianbargainofeconomicopportunitiesandsocialexclusion?Acredibleviewemergingoutofresearchisthatthemovefromruraltourbangenerallyprovidesanincomeboostforthepoorbutafterthisinitialupwardjump,incomerisewithintheurbanmilieumayoftenbeconsiderablymutedorslowerforthenewimmigrant.[6]Clearly,theeconomicopportunitymapfortheurbanpoorisconsiderablymoredynamicaswellasvulnerablecomparedtothatoftheruralpoorbutarguablysuchdynamicsareyettobeadequatelyfactoredintoresearchapproaches.Measuringtheurbanpoorishighlysensitivetothemethodologyused.Becausetheurbanpoorrelymoreheavilyoncashincometosecuretheirbasicneeds,income‐basedpovertymeasurestendtounderestimate

urbanpovertyincomparisonwiththosethatlookatmulti‐dimensionalindicesthatincludebesidesconsumptionotherdimensionssuchasaccesstobasicservicesandsocialvulnerabilities.Suchmulti‐dimensionalindicesincludei)greaterrelianceonthecasheconomy,ii)livelihoodsintheinformalsector,iii)overcrowdedlivingconditions,iv)frequentshiftofresidencev)environmentalhazards,vi)socialfragmentation,vii)exposuretocrimeandviolence,andviii)exposuretoaccidentsetc.Akeyresearchandpolicyconcernemanatingfromsuchmulti‐dimensionalindicesiswhethertheurbanpoorfacecontrastingrealitieswherebyaccesstoincomeopportunitiesdonoteasilytranslateintocommensurategainsinsocialpoverty.Availablestatisticsgivecredencetosuchconcerns:while

extremepovertyinurbanareaswasnearlyhalvedduring2000and2010,literacyratesremainedalmoststagnantoverthesameperiod.Aresuchcontrastingtrajectoriesinincomeandsocialpovertyaquestionoflaggedchangeoraretherestructuralbarriersandpolicybiasesthatengendersuchdifferentialoutcomes?Fromaninterventionistperspective,thisentailsalargerquestion,namely,whetherurbanpovertyismainlyaboutthepoorasatargetgrouporisitmoreaboutapolicyapproachtourbanizationthatprioritizesnarroweliteconcerns–whetheritisaboutspecificgrowthpoliciesortypesofserviceandinfrastructurepriorities‐attheexpenseofasustainableurbanizationprocessthatcanalsotranscendaconflictedrealityofeconomicopportunitiesandsocialexclusionfortheurbanpoor?[7]

Economic opportunities, social exclusion

Thenatureoftheriskprofilefacingtheurbanpoordiffersinmanyrespectsfromthatfacingtheruralpoor.Betterunderstandingofsuchdifferingriskprofilesisakeychallengeforurbanpovertyresearch.Risksmaystemfromuncertaintiesinthelabourmarket,tenureandresidentialinsecurities,disasters,institutionalinsecurities,uncertaintiesinaccesstobasicservicesaswellasexposuretocrime

andviolence.Whileuncertaintyisakeydimensionpartoftheurbanrealityforthepoor,theydonotacceptsuchuncertaintiespassively.[8]Theagencyofthepoorintheformofcopingstrategiestoaddressuncertaintiesandconstructstrategiesforupwardmobilityisakeystoryinurbanpoverty.Itisastorythathas,however,yettobebroughtfullyintoresearchfocus.[9]Understandingtheagencyofthe

urbanpoorisnotonlyaresearchandanalyticalprioritybutsuchagencycanbeakeyresourcewhenitcomestodesigningsolutionstospecificthematicconcernspertainingtourbanpoverty.[10]However,whenandhowsuchcopingstrategiescomeintoplayandwhatexpectationsandcalculationsunderlinethemisitselfacriticalareaofresearch.[11]

Uncertainty, coping and agency of the poor

Urbanizationisadistinctlydifferentiatedrealitywithametropolitan‐mofussildivideevidentonbothincomeandqualityoflifeindicators.Suchadivideisequally

realinthespecificitiesoftheurbancontextsandinthenatureoftheinterventionopportunitiesavailable.Whilefurtherunderstandingofwhattheurbanspectrumsignifiesfor

urbanpovertyisrequired,theneedforadifferentiatedagendavis‐à‐vismetropolitanDhakaandsecondarycitiesisalreadyindicatedbytheanalysiscurrentlyavailable.

The urban spectrum

Key learnings from the international conference on urban poverty, September, 2016

Incomelevelsmaybeanincompleteindicatorofthewell‐beingstatusoftheurbanpoor.Housingpoverty,burdenofsharedlatrine‐use,paucityofrequiredservicessuchaspublic

transportation,rentalinsecurity,poororuncertainaccesstoutilities,healthandeducationaswellasvariousformsofsocialvulnerabilitiesunderscorethenecessityof

embracingamulti‐dimensionalunderstandingofurbanpovertythatisspecifictourbancontexts.

Income gains versus well-being deficits

Akeymessagefromtheconferencewastheneedtoavoidexaminingurbanpovertythroughthelensofruralpoverty.Whiletherearesimilaritiesinthepovertyexperienceinurbanandruralcontexts,thedifferencesmayoftenbecritical.Inparticular,qualitativeanalysisofurbanpovertyalongsidethemore

familiarquantitativeanalysisisanunder‐addressedresearchfrontier.Themicro‐researchcommissionedbyPPRCfortheinternationalconferencerevealedanumberofinterestinginsightswhichunderscoredthepotentialofthisqualitativeresearchfocus.Asrepeatedlybroughtoutintheconference,urbanpovertyoften

suffersfromaproblemofbeingmis‐measuredi.e.conventionalmeasuresmissingoutoncriticaldimensions.Bringingurbanpovertyresearchintofocusisthusnotonlyameasurementchallengebutmoreimportantlyachallengeofbetterunderstanding.

Bringing urban poverty research into focus

Thestridentvisibilityofthepoorintheurbanlandscapecontrastssharplywiththestatisticalanddiscourseinvisibilityoftheurbanpoor.Policyreluctancestemmingfromafearofincentivizingmigration,elitistbiasoverurbanpolicyaswellasintellectualframeworksthatfailtocomeintogripswithkeyexperientialrealitiesofthepoorsuchasthe

informaleconomyoftencombinetopushtheissueurbanpovertytothemarginsofstatisticalandpolicyfocus.Breakingsuchvisibilitybarriersrequiresnotonlyresearchinitiativesbutalsoofbuildingunorthodoxnetworksthatbringstogetherresearchers,activists,sectoralexperts,urbanlocalgovernmentleaders,pro‐activepolicy‐makersand

representativesoftheurbanpoorthemselvesintocompellingadvocacyefforts.Theimportanceofsuchpolicyadvocacycanhardlybeover‐emphasizedbecausemoreoftenthannotpolicyreluctancetoengageonurbanpovertyismorethenormthantheexception.

Breaking the visibility barrier

Sincethe1980s,thetargetingapproachhasbeenfundamentaltoboththeunderstandingofpovertyandhowanti‐povertystrategieshavebeenfashioned.Itiseasytoadmitthatthisapproachhasyieldedrichdividendsintermsofreductionofpovertyparticularlyruralpoverty.Intheurbancontext,however,thisapproachpremisedon'household'and'community'asthe'targets'

presentfundamentalnewchallengesthatcallforstrategicre‐thinkingoftheapproach.Thisisparticularlytrueofmetropolitanrealitieswherethetraditionalconceptsofhouseholdandcommunityassocialunitsareincreasinglysubjecttonewerrealitiesoflocational,socialandlabourmarketfluiditythatnecessitatefundamentalre‐thinkingofsuchsocialconcepts.Thechallengehereisnotoneof

pushingsuchconceptsintodis‐usebutofdiscoveringthenewermeaningsthatcaninvestthemwithoperationalrelevance.Butoverandabovethis,thereisalsoachallengeofbringingintoinnovativeplaytheextra‐householdcontexts,themeso‐economyandthecityanintegratedreality.

Re-thinking the targeting approach

Bangladeshhasbeguntoaccumulateinnovativeexperiencesinhousingsolutionsinsecondarycitiesthatdrawoncommunityengagement,contextualizeddesignsolutionsandhousingfinancethatincorporatesrelevantfeaturesofthemicro‐financemodel.Suchexperienceshavelaidtheground‐workforapotentialbig‐

pushinthisarea.However,severalissuesmeritfurtherattention.TraditionalMFIsmaynotbeidealtobetheintermediaryorganizationsdrivingsuchaninitiative.Themicro‐financedisciplineonloandisbursementhastobeintegratedwithcommunitymobilizationapproachesrelevantforurban

settings.Therewillalsobeapremiuminintegratingdesignandland‐poolingideasthatcanelevateafinancingprojectintoalargerurbanupgradationinitiative.Finally,theimportanceofpromotingaconducivepolicysupportenvironmentamongbothnationalandmunicipalleaderscannotbeover‐emphasized.

Innovative housing solutions for secondary cities

Bangladesh'smarkedsuccessineliminatingopendefecationhasbroughtinitswakeanewchallengeoffaecalsludgemanagement.Rapidexpansionoflow‐costsanitarylatrineswithoutadequatelinkagetoanyfunctioningsewagenetworkiscreatinganewproblemoftoo‐quicklyfilleduplatrinesleadingstofecalspillontosurfacewaterandenvironmentalpollution.AsianWaterDevelopmentOutlookreport,2016hasdescribes

Bangladeshiriversasmostpolluted.EveninDhakawhichhaspipedsewagenetwork,only2%offecalloadistreated.Healthgainsofsanitationarethusgettingcompromisedbythisphenomenon.Aconcerteddriveonfecalsludgemanagementoffersapossiblesolutiontotheproblem.Thiswouldrequirei)lesson‐learningfrompilotexperiencesinsomemunicipalitiesii)adoptionofaprojectofscalebyDPHEwith

technicalsupportofKUET,BUETetc.iii)developmentofabusinessmodelonfecalsludgemanagementwithparticularattentiontopositiveexternalitiesandcreationofpublicgoodsiv)anindependentprojectfocusedonsecondarycitiesv)awarenessprogramonwastedisposalandrecyclingatcommunitylevelandvi)preparationandadoptionofaregulatoryframeworkonfecalsludgemanagement.

Urban sanitation: Faecal sludge management

Solution priorities

Therearethreeoutstandingsolutionprioritiespertainingtourbanhealthvis‐à‐vistheurbanpoor.Thefirsthastodowithinefficienciesinthedistributionofpublicsectorjurisdictionoverhealthcare.Thesecondrelatestotheburdenofhealthcareexpendituresontheurbanpoor.Thethirdrelatestobetterunderstandingoftheemergingepidemiologicalburdensontheurbanpoorandthesocio‐economicdeterminantsofsuchburdens.Theinstitutionalarchitectureofhealth‐servicedeliverydiffersstrikinglybetweenruralandurbanareas.Whilethereisacommonalityinthe

pluralisticpresenceofpublicandprivatesectorsinbothurbanandrural,distributionofpublicsectorhealthcarejurisdictiondifferssignificantlyincertainaspects.Intheruralareas,healthcareinfrastructureextendsfromtertiaryfacilitiesindistricttownsthroughsecondaryfacilitiesinupaziladowntoCommunityClinicsatthegrass‐rootlevel.Intheurbanareas,jurisdictionoverhealthservicedeliverywastraditionallybifurcatedwithmunicipalgovernmentsresponsibleforpublichealthandhealthministryresponsibleforsecondaryandtertiaryservices.Therewasan

overlaponthequestionofprimaryhealthcare:healthministryhadasmallnumberofdispensariesforthispurposewhilemunicipalgovernmentsalsohadsomejurisdictiononpaper.Overtime,rapidurbanizationwithitsattendantgrowthofurbanpoorrequiringprimaryhealthcareserviceshasposedamajorchallengetothistraditionaldistributionofhealthcarejurisdiction.Theinstitutionalresponsetothegrowingchallengehasbeentwofoldbothofwhichhavecontributedtoinefficientresource‐useandsub‐optimaloutcomes.Theministryoflocalgovernmentwhich

Urban health

hasjurisdictionovermunicipalgovernmentsadoptedadonor‐fundedurbanprimaryhealthcareprojectimplementedthroughNGOsthatmorphedintoanexclusivefocusonM&CHhealthservicestothedetrimentofotherprimaryhealth‐careneedsoftheurbanpoor.Thehealthministryontheotherhandhadalloweditsdispensariestofallintodis‐useleadingtotheurbanpoorover‐burdeningtertiaryfacilitiesfortheirprimaryhealthcareneeds.Theultimatevictimsofsuchajurisdictionallandscapearetheurbanpoorwhoarebothdeprivedoftheirprimaryhealthcareneedsandburdenedwithout‐of‐expensesinhavingtoaccesstoprivatesectorservices.Anurgentreviewaimedatovercomingtheabovejurisdictionalinefficienciesisapriority.[12]Keystepstoconsiderherearei)energizingthepublichealthmandates

ofmunicipalgovernmentsii)budgetaryboosttomodernizeandbringintousecurrentlynon‐functionalnetworkofurbandispensariesunderhealthministryiii)principleddialoguebetweenlocalgovernmentandhealthministriestophaseoutprojectapproachtourbanprimaryhealthcare(currentlylimitedtoM&CHservicesonly)iv)strengtheningthecurrentlyoccasionalsystemofGPsappointedundermunicipalbudgetsv)extendopeninghoursofgovernmentpharmaciestoeveninghourstoenableurbanpoortoavailofthesefacilitiesafterwork.Thesecondmajorareafor

correctiveactiononurbanhealthvis‐à‐vistheurbanpoorisinthereductionofout‐of‐pocketexpensesonhealthcare.Twoprioritiestoconsiderherearei)strengtheningthescopeandscaleoflowcostprogram

onessentialmedicines,inparticularmedicinesforchronicailmentsandii)awarenessprogramstodeterdelayedtreatmentwhichtypicallyresultsinmultipliedexpenditures.Viablehealthinsuranceprogramsareofcourseaperennialpriority.However,Bangladeshisyettomaketherequiredbreakthroughinthisarea.Besidesthesereformandprogram

priorities,thereisalsoaneedforhealthresearchthatprovidesbetterunderstandingoftheemergingepidemiologicalburdensontheurbanpoorandthesocio‐economicdeterminantsdrivingtheseburdens.Cost‐effectiveeffortsfromwithinthehealthsystemthatmakesinnovativeuseadministrativedata[13]canbeausefulsupplementtomoreformalresearchapproaches.[14]

Currentevidenceshowthatsocialprotectionprogramshasaproportionatelygreatercoverageoftheruralpoorcomparedtotheurbanpoor,afeaturemuchmorepronouncedforSouthAsia.[15]Giventhatabsolutenumberofurbanpooris

settorisedespitedeclineinoverallpovertyrates,thequestionofsocialprotectionforurbanareasisemergingasaconcern.Countrycontextsmatterhereasdoesunder‐currentsofpolicyskepticism.Itmaythusbeprematuretomovedirectly

intospecificprograminitiatives.However,theissuewillneedtobeaddressedsoonerorlater.Thepriorityatthisstageisawide‐rangingconsultativeprocessthatcanassessdemandandidentifythemostpromisingprogramentrypoints.

Urban social protection strategy

Asdistinctfromtargetedprogramsforsecondarycities,thepriorityforthemetropolitancentresofDhakaandChittagongareintegratedcitydevelopmentstrategiesthatcanpromoteaprocessofsustainableurbanizationandliveablecities.Inmanyways,institutionaldysfunctionisthedriveroftheburgeoningphenomenonofurbanpovertyparticularlyinmetropolitancentres.Overcomingsuchurbandysfunctionisarguablymoreimperativethan.targetedprogramsforparticular

slums.Therearethreeoutstanding

considerationsinthepreparationofsuchcitydevelopmentstrategies.Asdistinctfromthemasterplantradition,citydevelopmentstrategiesemphasizetheintegratednatureofthecityanditsmultiplerolesasalocationofeconomicgrowth,adynamichumansettlementandacomponentofanagglomerationeconomy.Asecondconsiderationistoanchorsuchstrategiesonawide‐rangingconsultativeprocessthat

includeskeystakeholdersincludingtheurbanpoor.Thethirdconsiderationistoidentifyamenuofinterventionsthattogetherconstituteastrategicpackageandthatiscommensuratewiththelikelyavailabilityofpoliticalcapital.Basedontheseconsiderations,fourthematicprioritiesneedtobeaddressed:institutionaldysfunction,transportnetworks,landmanagementandfinance.

Urban governance priorities: Institutional dysfunction, transport networks, land management and finance

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ConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,PPRC[13]ProfessorTahminaBanu,DiseaseBurdenofTheUrbanPoor:Dimensions,SocialDeterminants&Economic

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