Chapter 5: Competition and Cooperation

5

Competition

and Cooperation

C H A P T E R

Session Outline

• Defining competition and cooperation

• Competition as a process

• Psychological studies of competition and

cooperation

• Social factors influencing competition and

cooperation

(continued)

Session Outline (continued)

• Is competition good or bad?

• Enhancing cooperation

• Balancing cooperative and competitive

efforts

Competition and Cooperation Defined (Coakley, 1994)

• Competition: A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event.

• Cooperation: A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal.

The Competitive Process

The Competition Process

• Stage 1: An objective competitive situation is a situation in which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison.

• Stage 2: The subjective competitive situation is how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation (influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness).

(continued)

The Competition Process (continued)

• Stage 3: Response is whether a person

approaches or avoids an objective competitive

situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and

psychological levels).

• Stage 4: Consequences are usually seen as

positive or negative, and are equated with

success and failure respectively. However, the

athlete’s perception of the consequences is

more important than the objective outcome.

3 Types of Competitive Orientations

• Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) – Gill

& Deeter (1988)

• Competitiveness

• Win Orientation

• Goal Orientation

Psychological Studies of Competition and Cooperation

• Triplett’s cyclists: Cyclists were faster in

competition than alone racing against the clock.

• Deutsch’s puzzles: Competition-group

students were self-centered, directed efforts at

beating others, had closed communication, and

exhibited group conflict and distrust;

cooperation-group students communicated

openly, shared information, developed

friendships, and solved more puzzles.

Psychological Studies of Competition and Cooperation

• Cooperation as opposed to competition

produces superior performance, although

results may depend on the nature of the

task.

• Competition can serve as a positive source

of motivation to improve and refine skills.

Psychological Studies on Experimental Games

• Prisoner’s dilemma: Competitors draw

cooperators into competition

• Sherif and Sherif (1969) summer camp

studies: Competition can be reduced

through cooperative efforts to achieve

superordinate goals.

Psychological Studies of Competition and Aggression

• Competition is not good or bad; it is neutral.

• Whether it leads to aggression or

cooperation depends on the social

environment and the way the performers

view competition.

Psychological Studies on Competitive Sport and Success in Life

• Athletes in educational programs have

higher educational aspirations than

nonathletes.

• Athletes have no more or less career

success than nonathletes.

• Athletes are no more or less deviant than

nonathletes.

Is Competition Good or Bad?

• Competition is neither inherently good nor

bad.

• It is neither productive nor destructive.

• It is a neutral process; the environment

determines its effects to a great degree.

Competition and Cooperation as Complementary Concepts

• Competition and cooperation are not polar

opposites.

• The dynamics of how competition and

cooperation complement one another

should be taught.

• Top performers employ a blend of

competition and cooperation strategies.

Unorganised, Unstructured Sport (Coakley, 1997)

• Action, esp. leading to scoring

• Personal involvement in the action

• Closely matched teams

• Opportunities to reaffirm friendships during

the game

Attributes Related to Both Competition and Cooperation

• A sense of mission

• Strong work ethic

• Use of resources

• A strong preparation ethic

• A love of challenge and change

• Great teamwork

(Garfield, 1986)

Enhancing Cooperation: Component Structure of Games

• Competitive means—competitive ends: For

example, King of the Mountain, 100-yard

dash

• Cooperative means—competitive ends: For

example, soccer, basketball

(continued)

Enhancing Cooperation: Component Structure of Games (continued)

• Individual means—individual ends: For

example, calisthenics, cross-country skiing

• Cooperative means—individual ends: For

example, helping each other individually

improve

• Cooperative means—cooperative ends: For

example, keeping a volleyball from hitting

ground

Enhancing Cooperation: Cooperative Games

• Cooperative games emphasize both

cooperative means and cooperative ends.

• Cooperation can be taught through

cooperative games.

• Cooperative games can be devised by

changing the rules of traditional games.

Enhancing Cooperation: General Principles of Cooperative

Games

• Maximize participation.

• Maximize opportunities to learn sport and

movement skills.

• Do not keep score.

• Maximize opportunities for success.

• Give positive feedback.

• Provide opportunities for youngsters to play

different positions.

Guidelines for Balancing Competition and Cooperation

• Blend competition and cooperation when

teaching and coaching physical skills.

• Individualize instruction to meet each

person’s needs.

• Structure games for children to include both

competitive and cooperative elements.

(continued)

Guidelines for Balancing Competition and Cooperation (continued)

• When competition leads to fierce rivalry,

use superordinate goals to get the groups

together.

• Provide positive feedback and

encouragement to students and athletes

regardless of the outcomes of the

competition.

(continued)

Guidelines for Balancing Competition and Cooperation (continued)

• Stress cooperation to produce trust and

open communication.

• Provide opportunities for both the learning

of sport skills and the practice of these

skills in competition.

Competitive vs Cooperative Environments (Duda & Hall, 2001; Duda & Whitehead, 1998)

Cooperative

Environment

Dimension Competitive

Environment

Individual progress How success is defined Doing better than others

Effort What is valued Ability

Progress, effort How a person is

evaluated

Score, winning

Part of learning How mistakes are

viewed

Failure

Challenge, personal

best

Why activity is engaged

in

Extrinsic rewards,

recognition

Personal progress,

learning

What a person is

focused on

Comparison to others

Developmental learning What the leader is

focused on

Normative comparisons