Levels of Organization: All organisms are made of cells. Most cells are organized into functional...

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Levels of Organization:

• All organisms are made of cells.

• Most cells are organized into functional units called tissues.

• The four basic tissues of the human body

are: epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous tissues.

Levels of Organization:

• Organs are groups of tissues that perform specialized jobs. Examples of organs are: eyes and stomach

• A group of organs that work together to carry out a major life function is called an organ system.

Levels of Organization:• CELLS ----> TISSUE ----> ORGAN ----> ORGAN SYSTEM

Skeletal System:

• The skeletal system provides the

following:

• 1. support

• 2. place for muscle attachment

• 3. protection for vital organs

• 4. manufactures blood cells

• 5. stores calcium and phosphorus

Skeletal System:

• The skeletal system consists of the following:

• axial skeleton: skull and bones of the back and chest

• appendicular skeleton: bones associated with the limbs.

Help, I’m falling apart

Skeletal System:

• The place where two bones meet is called a joint.

• There are five types of joints:• immovable: skull• ball and socket: shoulder• hinge: elbow• gliding: wrist

• pivot: neck

Ball and Socket Joint

Hinge Joint

Saddle Joint

Pivot Joint

Muscular System

• Muscles are used for movement

• Muscles are either voluntary or involuntary– Involuntary : muscles not under conscious

control– Voluntary: muscles are under conscious control

Muscular System

• There are three types of muscles1. Smooth – found in the walls of hollow organs

like the stomach. (Involuntary)

2. Skeletal – found in the muscles that are attached to the bones. (Voluntary)

3. Cardiac – found only in the heart (Involuntary)

Respiratory System: • REVIEW:

• Formula for Cellular Respiration:• C6H12O6 + 6O2 - 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)

• Reactants Products

( in mitochondria)

Respiratory System:

• The function of the respiratory system is to exchange gases between blood and the air.

• Oxygen is inhaled and passed into the blood from small air sacs found in the lungs. These sacs are called alveoli.

Respiratory System:

• Carbon dioxide is passed to the lungs by the blood. The CO2 is then diffused out of the blood into the alveoli.

• Carbon dioxide is then forced out of the lungs when you exhale.

Respiratory System:

The major organs of the respiratory system are:

• nasal cavity: aids in warming and filtering out the air that is inhaled.

• pharynx: area at the back of the mouth

• larynx: upper part of the “wind pipe”

Respiratory System:

• trachea: windpipe; it is lined with cilia that prevent foreign particles from reaching the lungs.

• bronchi: branches of the trachea, leading into the lungs that are covered in cilia to prevent foreign particles from reaching the lungs

• lungs: organs composed of alveoli, and the place where gas exchange with the blood occurs.

Circulatory System:

The circulatory system has the following functions:• 1. pump blood through the blood vessels • 2. carry oxygen from the lungs and

nutrients to all the body cells. • 3. carry hormones to their target tissues • 4. take carbon dioxide back to the lungs • 5. take other wastes to the excretory system

Circulatory System:

The organs of the circulatory system are:

• heart: organ made of cardiac muscle, that pumps blood throughout the body.

• blood vessels: structures used to carry blood throughout the body (veins, arteries, and capillaries)

Circulatory System:• arteries: elastic vessel that transports oxygenated

blood away from the heart.(the pulmonary artery takes unoxygenated blood to

the lungs.)

• veins: large vessels that return unoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart.

(the pulmonary vein take oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart)

capillaries: smallest blood vessels with walls only one cell thick. Site where nutrients, oxygen,and carbon dioxide diffuse between blood and tissues.

Pathway of Circulation Through Blood Vessels:

Label the Diagram

In from Lungs

In from Body

Out to Body

Out To

Blue= deoxygenated

Red = oxygenated

BODYTrace the Flow of Blood

Flow of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs

Superior/ Inf. Vena Cava

Rt. Atrium

Rt. Ventricle

Pulmonary Artery

Pulmonary Vein

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle

Blood typing• Determining blood type is necessary before a

person can receive a blood transfusion because the red blood cells of incompatible blood types could clump together, causing death.

• Your immune system recognizes the red blood cells as belonging to you. If cells with a different surface molecule enter your body, your immune system will attack them.

Blood typing

Phenotype A (review)

• The lA allele is dominant to i, so inheriting either the lA i alleles or the lA lA alleles from both parents will give you type A blood

Phenotype B (review)

• The lB allele is also dominant to I, so to have type B blood, you must inherit the lB

allele from one parent and either another lB

allele or the i allele from the other.

Phenotype AB (review)

• The lA and lB alleles are codominant. This means that if you inherit the lA allele from one parent and the lB allele from the other, your red blood cells will produce both surface molecules and you will have type AB blood.

Phenotype O (review) • The i allele is recessive and produces no surface

molecules. Therefore, if you are homozygous ii, your blood cells have no surface molecules and you have blood type O.

Multiple alleles determining human blood types

Human Blood Types

lA lA or lAlilB lB or lBilA lB

Genotypes Surface Molecules Phenotypes

A and BNone

• Blood groups

% of U.S. population

Universal recipient

Universal donor

Blood Type

Antigens on RBC

Antibodies in Plasma

May Donate To

May Receive From

A A Anti B A,AB A, O

B B Anti A B, AB B,O

AB A, B None AB All(A, B, O)

O None A, B All (A,B,AB)

Digestive System:

• The function of the digestive system are:

1. receiving nutrients (food)

2. breaking food down

3. absorbing food and nutrients

4. eliminating materials that are not absorbed or digested.

Digestive System:

• The digestive system includes the following organs:

• mouth: organ that receives and begins the breakdown of food

• tongue: organ that helps in breaking down food

Digestive System:

• teeth: organ that helps in breaking down food

• salivary gland: gland that secretes saliva, an enzyme that breaks down food

• pharynx: the back of the mouth• esophagus: muscular tube that moves food

from the mouth to the stomach by smooth muscle contractions

Upper Digestive System

Digestive System:

• stomach: muscular digestive organ that secretes acids and enzymes

• liver: gland that produces many chemicals needed for digestion that are delivered to the small intestine

• gallbladder: bile-storing organ; aids digestion

Digestive System:

• pancreas: gland that produces digestive enzymes.

• small intestine: narrow, muscular tube where digestion is completed; connects stomach to large intestine.

• large intestine: muscular tube into which indigestible material is passed to the rectum for elimination.

Endocrine System:• This system controls all of

the metabolic activities of the body.

• This system includes all of the glands that secrete hormones in the body.

• Made of many glands that release chemical products (hormones) into the bloodstream which target cells elsewhere

• Hormones: chemical messages that affect target cells

Roller coaster thrills are due to hormones.

Endocrine System:

• hormones: chemical secreted by a gland that affects another part of an organism; hormones play a key role in regulating metabolism of digestion, growth, and reproduction.– examples of hormones: estrogen, testosterone, growth

hormone

• gland: fluid secreting cell or group of cells; produce fluids such as hormones– examples of glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, ovaries,

pancreas, testes

Types of Body Glands

• Exocrine: release secretions through ducts directly to organs (ex: sweat, tears, digestive juices)

• Endocrine: release chemicals directly into the blood stream

Sweat gland and ducts

Pituitary Gland• Secretes 9 hormones that

directly regulate body functions and controls other endocrine glands– Growth hormone (GH)– Antidiuretic hormone

(ADH)– Oxytocin– Prolactin– TSH– FSH and LH

(reproductive hormones)

Thyroid Gland

• Regulates body metabolism

• Too much thyroxine = hyperthyroidism (high metabolism, jittery, weight loss)

• Too little thyroxine = hypothyroidism (lower metabolism and body temperature, weight gain)

• Lack of iodine = goiter

Thyroid Hormone x12,000 by Dee Breeger

Parathyroid Hormone

• Glands surrounding thyroid

• Helps to regulate calcium levels in blood

Adrenal Glands

• Release hormones that help people prepare and deal with stress

• Epinephrine• Norepinephrine• Commonly called

adrenaline

The adrenal gland makes several hormones. The inner zone (medulla) makes adrenaline. The outer zone (cortex) supplies cortisol as well as other hormones controlling salt balance (aldosterone) and sexual development

Pancreas

• Regulates blood sugar (glucose) levels

• Insulin• Glucagon

• Diabetes: inability to regulate blood glucose, unable to produce or respond properly to insulin

Reproductive Glands

• Gonads: produces gametes and produces reproductive hormones

• Testosterone• Estradiol (estrogen)

Testosterone

Estradiol

Excretory System (Urinary System):

The functions of the excretory system are:

1. eliminate waste products of amino acid breakdown from the blood

2. maintain water balance

3. maintain salt balance in the blood

4. store and transport urine out of the body

Excretory System (Urinary System):

The major organs of the urinary system:• kidney: removes nitrogenous wastes from the

blood; controls the sodium level and pH of the blood.

• ureters: tubes that transport urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder

• bladder: bag made of smooth muscle that stores urine, (solution of wastes)

• urethra: tube through which urine is eliminated from the body

Nephron

Reproductive System:

• The function of the reproductive systems is to produce gametes (n) through the process of meiosis.

• The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:

• scrotum: sac that contains the testes; maintains sperm at a lower temperature than body temperature.

• testes: place where sperm production takes place

Sperm cell diagram

Reproductive System:• epididymis: coiled tube

within the scrotum in which the sperm complete their maturation.

• vas deferens: a duct that transports sperm from the epididymis toward the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra.

• seminal vesicles: glands that secrete a mucous-like fluid rich in sugar, that provides energy for the sperm cells.

• bulbourethral gland: gland that secretes a fluid that helps the sperm survive in the acidic vagina.prostate gland: gland that secretes a fluid that helps sperm move and survive.

• urethra: tube that sperm travel through when ejaculated.

• penis: organ that surrounds the urethra and transfers sperm cells into the female reproductive tract.

• The female reproductive system contains the following organs:

• ovary: female reproductive organ that produces eggs.

• oviduct (fallopian tube): tube that transports eggs from ovary to uterus

• uterus: muscular organ in which young are developed and protected; animals having litters usually have uterine horns

Female Reproductive System

• Primary function: produce ova and prepare the body to nourish a developing embryo

• Typically only one mature ova is produced per menstrual cycle. Color modified SEM of egg

Menstrual cycle

• Human females undergo monthly cycles where the uterine lining is prepared in the event of fertilization.

• The lining is shed or released if fertilization does not take place.

• There is little blood, mostly water and proteins, that line the uterine walls.

Charting the Menstrual Cycle

• LH, FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone control the development of the egg and the building of the uterine lining.

vagina: the passage way that leads from the uterus to the outside of the body

Stages of Human Development

• One sperm cell must fertilize the egg within the Fallopian tubes (oviduct) within a few hours of ovulation.

• The fertilized egg undergoes mitosis, where it then travels to the uterus for implantation.

SEM of sperm fertilizing egg

Sperm Cells on Ovum Surface

SEM of fertilized egg (2n) = zygote

Stages of HumanDevelopment

• Blastocyst: hollow ball that implants in uterus lining

Fertilized egg development

• Gastrula: in folding of ball, producing 3 germ layers

• Neurulation: process of nervous system development

• Some mesoderm tissue notocord

• Parts of the notocord (neural groove) neural tube to hold spinal cord and nervous system

• Embryo: up to eight weeks– Placenta: tissue

attached to uterus where exchanges with mother takes place

– Umbilical cored:

attaches embryo to

placenta

• Fetus: after eight weeks, human characteristics develop

Fetus Position within the Womb

40 and 45 day human fetus

5 weeks

2 months

12 weeks 18 weeks

20 weeks 24 weeks

7 months 8 months

Delivery and Birth

Afterbirth (placenta & umbilical cord)

Nervous System:

• The function of the nervous system is to act as the body’s control center and coordinate the body’s activities.

• The organs of the nervous system are:brain: the control center of the

central nervous system

Nervous System:

• spinal cord: a bundle of nerve cells that transmit neural impulses from the brain to the body and from the body to the brain.

• neuron: the basic unit of the nervous system; cells that conduct impulses throughout the nervous system.

Neuron: specialized nerve cell

• Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, hypothalamus, thalamus

Cerebrum: voluntary actions

• Separated from left and right hemispheres with the corpus callosum

• Each hemisphere deals with the opposite side of the body.

4 major cerebrum lobes

Cerebellum: body coordination

• Located at the back of the brain

• Helps to maintain balance and graceful movements

Teen Girl Squad by the Brothers Chap

Brain stem: involuntary actions

• Made up of the pons and medulla oblongata

• Controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, etc.

• Conducts brain signals to the rest of the body

Thalamus and hypothalamus• Thalamus: receives

messages from body and transmits signals to the appropriate brain parts

• Hypothalamus: controls pituitary gland (hormone production) and senses hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, body temperature

Peripheral nervous system• Somatic: regulates activities under

conscious control (ex: lift arm) and reflex arcs (rapid responses)

Peripheral nervous system

• Autonomic: controls involuntary actions (ex: increased heart rate or blood flow

• The gastric antrum to the left is under autonomic control.

Lymphatic System (Immune System):

• The lymphatic system is involved in fighting disease and tissue repair.

• Organs of the lymphatic system are as follows:

• lymph: water and dissolved substances that diffuse from the bloodstream

• lymph nodes: small mass of tissue that filters lymph

• lymphocyte: type of white blood cell that defends the body against foreign substances

Innate Immune System:

• 1. Skin: the first line of defense

• 2. Secretions that destroy microbes: mucus, sweat, tears, and saliva

• 3. Phagocytosis of microbes

• 4. Inflammation of body tissues: redness, swelling, pain and heat

• 5. Complement: protein molecules attach to pathogens and help the body destroy the pathogen by damaging their plasma membranes and attracting an increased number of phagocytes.

Adaptive Immune System:

• Immunity - Defense against a specific pathogen by building up a resistance to it is called immunity.

• antigen: foreign substances that stimulate the production of antibodies in the blood.

• antibody: protein in the blood produced in reaction to antigens

The Integumentary System

• Skin– Epidermis– Dermis

• Hair

• Nails

The Skin• Largest body organ• Barrier against infection (first line of

defense) and injury• Regulates body temperature with

sweating• Removes waste products from body

metabolism (salts)• Provides UV protection• Manufactures vitamin D

The Epidermis

• Outer layer made of dead cells

• Inner layer made of living cells– undergoes mitosis

quickly to push older cells to the surface

– makes keratin protein which strengthens outer cells

Melanocytes

• Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin, a dark brown pigment

• Helps protect skin against UV damage

The Dermis• Layer of skin beneath the epidermis

• Lots of collagen fibers, blood vessels, nerve endings, sensory receptors, smooth muscles, and hair follicles

Sweat glands in the dermis layer

Sweat glands secrete water, salts, calcium, and other metabolic waste.

Sebaceous glands in the dermis

• Produce oily secretions (sebum) that keeps the keratin-rich epidermis supple and waterproof

Acne: When sebaceous glands become infected or blocked, a whitehead or blackhead forms.

Skin Cancer

• When skin cells are overexposed to UV rays, they can overgrow (excessive mitosis) and become cancerous.

• Precautions: sunglasses, sunscreen, hat, long sleeves, avoiding tanning (natural or artificial)

Human Hair• Grows from hair follicles, tube like pocket of

epidermal cells that extend into the dermis• Hair grows from the base.• Sebum helps maintain hair condition.

Human hair SEM from Rice University

Hair functions

• Head hair: protects the body from UV exposure and for warm

• Nostril hairs, ear hairs, and eyebrows/eyelashes: prevents dirt and particles from entering the body

• Body hairs: helps with sensory perception

By the University of Wales Bioimaging Lab

Seriously long ear hair

The World’s Longest Ear Hair – 10.2 cm

B D Tyagi of Bhopal (India)

http://news.bbc.co.uk/.../ newsid_1805000/1805342.stm

• Nails grow from the nail root, near the tips of fingers and toes.

• Average growth rate: 3 mm/month

• Evolutionary function: protection

Levels of Organization: All organisms are made of cells. Most cells are organized into functional...

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