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Intangible Capital, 2010 – 6(1):1-25 – ISSN: 1697-9818
doi: 10.3926/ic.2010.v6n1.p1-25
Linking supervisor’s role in training programs… 1
A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
Linking supervisor’s role in training programs to
motivation to learn as an antecedent of job
performance
Azman Ismail Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(Malaysia)
iazman@fcs.unimas.my
Lucy Loh Ching Sieng Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(Malaysia)
lucy@aaa.com
Muhammad Madi Bin Abdullah Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
International Campus
(Malaysia)
muhdmadi@ic.utm.my
Sebastina K. Francis Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
(Malaysia)
sebastian@utar.edu.my
Received June, 2009
Accepted January, 2010
Abstract:
According to the literature pertaining to human resource development (HRD), a
supervisor’s role in training programs has two major characteristics: support and
communication. The ability of supervisors to play effective roles in training
programs may increase employees’ job performance. More importantly, extant
research in this field reveals that the effect of the supervisor’s role in training
programs on job performance is indirectly affected by the motivation to learn. The
nature of this relationship is less emphasized in training management literature.
Therefore, this study was conducted to measure the effect of the supervisor’s role
in training programs and the motivation to learn on job performance using 91
usable questionnaires gathered from employees who have worked in a state library
in East Malaysia, Malaysia. The outcomes of stepwise regression analysis displayed
that the inclusion of motivation to learn in the analysis had increased the effects of
Intangible Capital, 2010 – 6(1):1-25 – ISSN: 1697-9818
doi: 10.3926/ic.2010.v6n1.p1-25
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
the two supervisor’s role elements of support and communication on job
performance. This result demonstrates that the motivation to learn acts as a
mediating variable in the training model of the organizational sample. The
implications of this study to the theory and practice of training programs,
methodological and conceptual limitations as well as future directions are
elaborated.
Keywords: supervisor’s role in training programs, motivation to learn, job
performance, Malaysia.
JEL Codes: L20
1. Introduction
Supervisors are considered as the first level of management who are given major
duties and responsibilities to lead work groups in organizations (Elangovan &
Karakowsky, 1999; Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Noe 2008). As an experienced leader,
problem solver and role model at the group level, supervisors often work together
with their employers to design, implement and monitor the organizational policies,
procedures and plans, including training programs (Comstock, 1994; Robbins &
DeCenzo, 2004; Ellinger et al., 2005). A training program is a strategic function of
human capital management, where it focuses on developing overall employee
competencies to overcome their daily work problems. This may lead to supporting
the development and growth of an organization in the future (DeSimone, Warner &
Harris, 2002; MacNeil, 2004). In the traditional management perspective,
supervisors are given the important responsibility by an employer to identify the
daily, routine and short-term employee deficiencies, as well as report such
deficiencies to the top management. Top management will then identify the
training requirements or training needs to overcome such employee deficiencies
(Pfeffer, 1998; Rodrígues & Gregory, 2005).
In an era of global competition, many organizations now have shifted their
paradigms from traditional job-based training to organizational business strategies
and cultures (MacNeil, 2004; Ellinger et al., 2005 Ismail et al., 2007). Under this
approach, supervisors are empowered by an employer to effectively design and
Intangible Capital, 2010 – 6(1):1-25 – ISSN: 1697-9818
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
administer training programs to develop useful competencies for future
organizational development and change. During the designing stage of training
programs, supervisors often work together in tandem with the management team
and other employees in establishing objectives, selecting suitable trainers,
developing effective lesson plans, selecting program methods and techniques,
preparing course materials, scheduling the program, as well as conducting training
needs analyses (TNA) (Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Goleman, 2000; Nijman, 2004). In
the administration of training programs, supervisors usually refer to the
management team and experienced employees to ensure that the implementation
of training activities will achieve the set objectives (Elangovan & Karakowsky,
1999; Yamnill & McLean, 2001; DeSimone et al., 2002;). For example, the role of
supervisors in administering training programs does not only provide financial and
physical facility support, but they also have the capabilities to establish realistic
and achievable learning expectations, encourage positive reinforcements, create a
positive impetus for the training program, make employees feel comfortable to
attend training, and improve and develop employees’ competencies (Brinkerhoff &
Montesino, 1995; Goleman, 2000).
The supervisor’s role is a critical organizational context that may support or resist
empoyees to enter and participate in training programs (Noe, 1986, 2008;
Blanchard & Thacker, 2007). In this line, many scholars have identifed that support
and communication are the two salient features of a supervisor’s role that can
affect the overall effectiveness of training programs (Facteau et al., 1995;
Chiaburu & Tekleab, 2005; Ismail et al., 2007). The supervisor’s support is often
related to a supervisor who provides encouragement and opportunities to improve
employee performance in organizations (MacNeil, 2004; Noe, 2008). In the training
context, supervisors often encourage and motivate trainees to attend training
programs, help employees before, during and after training programs in terms of
time, budgetary support and resources, get employees to be actively involved in
decision-making, and guide trainees in applying the new competencies that they
have acquired in their workplace (Elangovan & Karakowsky, 1999; Nijman, 2004;
Tai, 2006).
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Furthermore, supervisor communication is often viewed as the activity or process
of expressing ideas or feelings while giving people information, as well as
exchanging ideas and information between a person or a group through symbols,
actions, written or spoken words in order to impart information and ideas
effectively (Lumsden & Lumsden, 1993; Harris et al., 2000). In a training program,
supervisors openly deliver information about the procedures, content, tasks and
objectives of the training program, conducting discussion about tasks that should
be learned, giving detailed explanations about the benefits of attending training
programs and providing performance feedback (Harris et al., 2000; Sisson, 2001).
Extant research in this area highlights that the ability of supervisors to provide
sufficient support and use of good communication styles in training programs may
lead to higher level of employee job performance (Baldwin & Magjuka, 1991;
McGraw, 1993). Job performance is generally seen as individual employees
accomplishing their respective work goals, meeting their expectations, achieving
job targets and/or accomplishing a benchmark set by their organizations (Eysenck,
1998; Maathis & Jackson, 2000; Bohlander et al., 2001).
Interestingly, a careful investigation of such relationships reveals that the effect of
a supervisor’s role in training programs on employees’ job performance is indirectly
influenced by employee motivation to learn (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Farr &
Middlebrooks, 1990; Tracey et al., 2001). Although the nature of this relationship
is interesting, little is known about the mediating role of the motivation to learn in
training management literature (Tracey et al., 2001; Chiaburu & Takleab, 2005;
Tai, 2006). Hence, it motivates the researchers to measure the effect of supervisor
role in training programs and the motivation to learn on job performance that
occur in a selected city-based local authority in Sarawak, Malaysia (EMSTLIBRARY).
For reasons of confidentiality, the name of the actual organization is kept
anonymous.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to measure the effect of the supervisor’s
role in training programs and the motivation to learn on job performance in a state
library in East Malaysia, Malaysia (EMSTLIBRARY).
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2. Context of the study
EMSTLIBRARY was established to be a major information resource centre and as
the hub of information services for the public and private sectors in Sarawak. This
organization is also linked to other libraries, archives and information centres in
Sarawak, Malaysia and overseas. In-depth interviews were conducted before and
during a pilot study to understand the nature of training programs and their impact
on individual attitudes and behaviours. Prior to carrying out the pilot study, an in-
depth interview was conducted involving two experienced supporting
administrative staff.
During the pilot study, an in-depth interview was done involving an assistant
human resource manager, head of the training unit, and eight experienced
supporting staff who worked in the organization. Information gathered from the
interviews shows that the training and development program is one of the
important tasks of the Human Resource Division. All employees are entitled to
attend soft and hard skills training programs through in-house training and
external training companies. Training budget is limited, but several methods, such
as in-house training and training of trainer approaches have been employed to
increase the capability of the staff in handling information services timely and
accurately to foreign and local clients. For example, in order to save a training
budget, the management often uses a training-for-trainer approach whereby a few
selected staff (e.g., manager and supervisor), are sent to attend external training
programs (e.g., at the National Institute of Public Administration, public
universities and Malaysian National Library). After attending such training
programs, they are required to conduct formal and/or informal in-house training
programs (e.g., coaching, mentoring, seminar and/or workshop) for their own
staff. This approach is often practiced to create a positive learning culture,
knowledge sharing and enhance competencies among staff. In managing training
programs, supervisors have been provided support and have practiced good
communication styles to motivate technical and administrative employees learn
and apply new competencies in the workplace.
A thorough investigation of the in-depth interview results showed that the ability of
supervisors to provide material and moral support as well as to practice good
communication styles (e.g., provide constructive feedback and open discussion)
Intangible Capital, 2010 – 6(1):1-25 – ISSN: 1697-9818
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
have invoked employees’ motivation to learn and this may lead to an increased job
performance in the workplace. Although the nature of such relationships is
interesting, little is known about the mediating role of motivation to learn in the
training program model of the studied organization.
3. Literature review and hypotheses development
Several scholars such as Knowles (1989), Noe (2008) and Blanchard and Thacker
(2007) state that the motivation to learn consists of two major components:
motivation and learning. Motivation is often defined as direction, persistence and
amount of effort that may be expanded by an individual to achieve his/her
particular objective. Learning is usually viewed from the human, cognitive and
behavior perspectives. For example, cognitive theorists define learning as a
relatively permanent change in cognition occurring as a result of experience.
Meanwhile, behavior theorists define learning as “a relatively permanent change in
behavior in response to a particular stimulus or set of stimuli” (Noe, 1986). Based
on cognitive and behavior perspectives, motivation to learn may be defined as an
intense, persistence and the direction of learning new knowledge, skills and
attitudes are affected by an individual who has clear goals, puts a high value on
outcomes, has high self-efficacy and satisfied with supervisors’ treatments (Adams,
1963, 1965; Vroom, 1964, 1973; Wood & Bandura, 1989; Locke & Latham, 1990).
If an individual possesses a high level of motivation to learn, this will increase
his/her ability to overcome discouraging learning factors. Consequently, it may
motivate an individual to follow, involve and commit to learning activities in order
to improve the individual’s work attitude and behavior, especially job performance
(Axtell et al., 1997; Guerrero & Sire, 2001; Nijman, 2004).
In this sense, within a training program perspective, the ability of supervisors to
provide sufficient support (e.g. encouragement and guidance) and use
communication openness in training management (e.g. feedback and discussion)
will invoke their employees’ motivation to learn and which in turn lead to higher job
performance (Martocchio & Webster, 1992; Tsai & Tai, 2003; Blanchard & Thacker,
2007).
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Relationship between supervisor’s role, motivation to learn and job
performance
Several recent studies have used an indirect effect model to examine training
administration and found that effect of supervisor’s role in training programs on job
performance were indirectly affected by the motivation to learn. For example,
several studies about supervisor’s role in training programs based on a sample of
45 trainees in UK organizations (Axtell et al., 1997), and 100 technical employees
in North Kuching City Hall, Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2008a) generally showed that
properly implemented supervisor’s role in training programs had invoked
employees’ motivation to learn up to date knowledge and skills, this could lead to
higher job performance in the workplace. Specifically, two surveys about
supervisor communication in training programs were carried out based on a sample
of 126 employees in Northern Taiwan Tai (2006), and 100 technical employees in
North Kuching City Hall, Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2007). Meanwhile, three surveys
about supervisor support in training programs were conducted based on a sample
of 119 employees who attended training program in a large organization in USA
(Chiaburu & Takleab, 2005), 179 trainees and 32 supervisors at certain US
organizations (Nijman, 2004), and 100 technical employees in North Kuching City
Hall, Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2007). The findings of these studies advocate that the
willingness of supervisors to provide better explanations about the training plans
and the ability of supervisors to properly provide training supports had invoked
employees’ motivation to learn, which in turn, led to higher job performance in the
organizations.
These studies are consistent with the notion of motivation to learn theories. First,
Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal setting theory postulates that goals direct
individuals to perform a task. Application of this theory in training management
shows that the ability of a supervisor to design training objectives that meet
employees’ needs and provide clear explanations about the procedures of attaining
the goals will strongly increase employees’ motivation to learn. As a result, it may
lead to increased job performance (Mathieau et al., 1992; Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
Second, Wood and Bandura’s (1989) social learning theory (SLT) reveals that self-
efficacy reinforces individuals’ performance. Application of this theory in training
programs shows that the ability of a supervisor to encourage employees learning a
proper technique and providing clear explanations about the procedures of
Intangible Capital, 2010 – 6(1):1-25 – ISSN: 1697-9818
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
attaining the goals will strongly increase employees’ motivation to learn.
Consequently, it may lead to increased job performance (Brown et al., 2001;
Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
Third, Adams’ (1963; 1965) equity theory states that fair or unfair treatment has a
significant impact on individual’s attitude and behavior. The application of this
theory in training management shows that employees who receive sufficient
support from their supervisors while applying and attending training programs will
perceive equity. If individuals feel that they are fairly treated and supported by
their supervisors, this will subsequently invoke their motivation to learn, which in
turn, lead to an increase in job performance (Mathieu et al., 1992; Chiaburu &
Takleab, 2005).
Finally, Vrooms’ (1964;1973) expectancy theory highlights that an individual will
perform certain actions if he/she perceives such actions may bring valued
outcomes. The application of this theory in training management shows that the
ability of a supervisor to openly and honestly communicate the value of attending
training programs and its importance of learning new competencies will strongly
increase employees’ motivation to learn. As a result, it may lead to increased job
performance (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Farr & Middlebrooks, 1990).
The above literature has been used as the platform and foundation to develop a
conceptual framework for this study as shown in Figure 1.
Independent Variable Mediating Variable Dependent Variable
Figure 1. “The motivation to learn mediates the relationship between supervisor’s role in
training programs and job performance”. Source: authors
Based on the framework, it seems reasonable to assume that the ability of
supervisors to play proper roles in training programs will affect EMSTLIBRARY
employees as this has influenced overseas employees. Motivation to learn theories
Supervisor’s Role Elements:
Support Communication
Job Performance
Motivation to Learn
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further suggest that the ability of supervisors to provide sufficient support and
practice with good communication skills will motivate employees to update their
knowledge, acquire new skills and positive attitudes in training programs. As a
result, it may lead to an increased job performance in organizations. Therefore, it
can be hypothesized that:
H1: Motivation to learn positively mediates the effect of supervisor support
on job performance
H2: Motivation to learn positively mediates the effect of supervisor
communication on job performance
4. Methodology
This study used a cross-sectional research design, which allowed the researchers to
integrate training management literature, the in-depth interview, the pilot study
and the actual survey as a main procedure to gather data for this study. The use of
such methods may gather accurate and less biased data (Cresswell, 1998;
Sekaran, 2000). At the initial stage of this study, in-depth interviews were
conducted before and during the pilot study. Before conducting the pilot study, an
in-depth interview was conducted involving two experienced supporting
administrative staff. Then during the pilot study, another in-depth interview was
done involving an assistant human resource manager, head of Training Unit, and
eight experienced supporting staff who work in the organization. They are selected
based on purposive sampling where the employees have good knowledge and
experience about the design and administration of training programs. Information
gathered from such employees helped the researchers to understand the nature of
supervisor’s role, motivation to learn characteristics, job performance features, as
well as the relationship between such variables in the target organization. After
transcribing, categorizing and comparing the information with relevant theoretical
and empirical evidence, the triangulated outcomes were used as a guideline to
develop the content of the survey questionnaire for the pilot study. Next, a session
was initiated for discussing the items in survey questionnaire with the above
participants in order to verify the content and format of the questionnaire for the
actual study. The back translation technique was used to translate the survey
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questionnaires in Malay and English; this may increase the validity and reliability of
the instrument (Van Maanen, 1983; Wright, 1996).
Measurement of variables
The survey questionnaire consisted of four sections. Firstly, supervisor support had
four items that were derived from the training research literature (Tsai & Tai,
2003; Chiaburu & Takleab, 2005; Tai, 2006; Ismail et al., 2007). Secondly,
supervisor communication had five items that were derived from the transfer of
training literature (Foxon, 1993; Xiao, 1996; Yamnill & McLean, 2001; Ismail et al.,
2007). Thirdly, motivation to learn had four items that were based on the training
program literature (Foxon, 1993; Noe, 2008; Tsai & Tai, 2003; Rodríguez &
Gregory, 2005). Finally, job performance had five items that were based on job
performance literature (Lawler & Hall, 1970; Hvang et al., 2004). All the items
used in the questionnaire were measured using a 7-item scale ranging from
‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (7). Demographic variables were used as
the controlling variable because this study also focused on employees’ attitude.
Analytic procedures
The researchers had obtained an official approval to conduct the study from the
head of the target organization and also received advice from him about the
procedures of conducting the survey in his organization. The targeted population
for this study was 98 employees who have worked in the selected organization.
After considering the organizational rules, a convenience sampling technique was
used to distribute the questionnaire to all employees who willing to participate
through the Human Resource office. Of the number, 91 usable copies of the
questionnaire were returned to the researchers, yielding a response rate of 92.86
percent. The survey questions were answered by participants based on their
consent and voluntary basis. The number of this sample exceeds the minimum
sample of 30 participants as required by probability sampling technique, showing
that it may be analyzed using inferential statistics (Sekaran, 2000; Leedy &
Ormrod, 2005).
The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 16.0 was used to analyse
the data from the questionnaire. Firstly, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was
used to assess the validity and reliability of measurement scales (Nunally &
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Bernstein, 1994; Hair et al, 1998). Relying on the guidelines set up by these
statisticians, a factor analysis with direct oblimin rotation was first done for all the
items that represented each research variable, and this was followed by other
tests, that is, Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin Test (KMO), Bartlett’s test of sphericity (BTS),
eigenvalue, variance explained and Cronbach alpha (α).
Secondly, analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson correlation (r) analysis and
descriptive statistics were conducted to analyze the constructs and the usefulness
of the data set (Tabachnick et al., 2001; Yaacob, 2008). Finally, Stepwise
regression analysis was utilized to test the mediating hypothesis because it can
assess the magnitude of each independent variable, and vary the mediating
variable in the relationship between many independent variables and one
dependent variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Foster et al., 1998). According to Baron
and Kenny (1986), the mediating variable can be considered when it meets three
conditions: first, the predictor variables are significantly correlated with the
hypothesized mediator. Second, the predictor and mediator variables are all
significantly correlated with the dependent variable. Third, a previously significant
effect of predictor variables is reduced to non-significance or reduced in terms of
effect size after the inclusion of mediator variables into the analysis (Wong et al.,
1995). In this regression analysis, standardized coefficients (standardized beta)
were used for all analyses (Jaccard et al., 1990).
5. Results
Table 1 shows that most of the respondent characteristics were male (51.6%),
ages ranging from 20 to 39 years old (80.3%), MCE/SPM holders (20.9%), length
of service with less than 2 years (74.8%), staff who attended the training within
working hours (43.4%), and those who had learning experience in technical field
(54.3%).
Table 2 and Table 3 show the results of the validity and reliability analyses for
measurement scales. The original survey questionnaire consisted of 18 items,
which related to four variables: support (4 items), communication (5 items), and
motivation to learn (4 items) and job performance (5 items).
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Gender (%) Male = 51.6 Female = 48.4 Age (%) 20-29 = 33 30-39 = 47.3 40-49 = 16.5 >49 = 3.3
Education (%) Degree = 22 Diploma/STP = 15.4 MCE/SPM = 20.9 Length of Service (%) >1 year = 39.6 1-2 years = 35.2 3-4 years = 6.6 5 years = 18.7
Type of Training (%) During official hours = 43.4 Non-official hours = 21.8 Both =34.8 Learning Experience (%) Technical skills = 54.3 Non-technical/ = 32.5 administrative skills Both = 13.2
Note: SRP/LCE/PMR: Sijil Rendah Pelajaran/Lower Certificate of Education/ Penilaian Menengah Rendah; SPM/MCE: Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia/ Malaysia Certificate of Education; STPM: Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia
Table 1. “Respondent characteristics”. Source: Authors
Variable Item Component 1 2 3 4
Supervisor Support
gives enough time for me to practice the skills that I have learned during training
.90
encourages me to attend training program .92 cares about my needs to have knowledge and skills assists me to apply the knowledge and skills learned from the training
.66
Supervisor Communication
clearly explains the objective of attending training program
.76
gives information regarding the training program .76 gives feedback regarding the way I apply the knowledge and skills learned from training program
.73
provides feedback, instruction or performance appraisal clearly
.75
praises me when I do my job well .76
Motivation to Learn
interested to learn new knowledge and skills in training
.87
interested to attend training programs that is related to area of work.
.62
gives full attention regarding the content of the training program.
.77
motivates to learn something new .59
Job Performance
feels more confident upon attending training .68 job outputs were more quality upon attending training
.85
able to solve any work-related problems .41 able to work with minimum guidance and supervision .51
able to solve any work-related problems .43
Table 2. “Item validity”. Source: Authors
The factor analysis with direct oblimin rotation was first carried out for all the
variables. Then, the Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin Test (KMO) which is a measure of
sampling adequacy was conducted for each variable and the results indicated that
it was acceptable.
Relying on Hair et al. (1998) guidelines, these statistical analyses showed that: (1)
all research variables exceeded the acceptable standard of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin’s
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value of 0.6, (2) all research variables were significant in Bartlett’s test of
sphericity, (3) all research variables had eigenvalues larger than 1, and (4) the
items for each research variable exceeded factor loadings of 0.40 (Hair et al.,
1998). Besides that, all research variables exceeded the acceptable standard of
reliability analysis of 0.70 (Nunally & Bernstein, 1994). These statistical analyses
confirm that the measurement scales met the acceptable standard of validity and
reliability analyses as shown in Table 2 and Table 3.
Measure Items Factor
Loadings KMO
Bartlett’s
Test
of Sphericity
Eigenvalue
Variance
Explained
(%)
Cronbach
Alpha (α)
Supervisor
Support 4 .66 - .87 .76 87.57 2.33 58.30 .76
Supervisor Communication
5 .73 - .76 .60 104.37 2.37 47.49 .72
Motivation to
learn 4 .59 - .87 .75 184.46 2.75 68.74 .84
Job Performance 5 .41 - .85 .75 119.84 2.54 63.42 .79
Table 3. “The results of validity and reliability analysis for measurement Scales”. Source:
authors
The variance analysis, Pearson correlation analysis and descriptive statistics were
used to analyze the research variables used in this study. Firstly, the analysis of
variance techniques were used to compare the mean scores between two or more
groups in the studied organization. In this case, independent samples t-tests were
used to compare two different (independent) groups of people (i.e., gender) and
ANOVA is used to compare three and more different (independent) groups of
people (i.e., age) (Hair et al., 1998; Yaacob, 2008). Outcomes of one-way ANOVA
showed that learning experience was found to have a significant difference with
supervisor support, which means that supervisor support was found to be
differently perceived by learning difference.
Table 4 shows the results of Pearson correlation analysis and descriptive statistics.
The mean values for the variables are from 3.2 to 3.6, signifying that the levels of
supervisor’s support, supervisor communication, motivation to learn and job
performance ranging from moderately high (3) to highest level (7). The correlation
coefficients for the relationship between the independent variable (supervisor
support and supervisor communication) and the mediating variable (motivation to
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learn) and the dependent variable (job performance) were less than 0.90,
indicating that the data were not affected by serious collinearity problem (Hair, et
al., 1998).
Variable Mean Standard Deviation
Pearson Correlation Analysis 1 2 3 4
1. Supervisor Support 3.2 .41 1
2. Supervisor Communication
3.4 .36 .50** 1
3.Motivation to Learn
3.6 .40
.12
.19 1
4.Job Performance
3.3 .41 .45** .43** .22* 1
Note: Significant at p*<0.05;**p<0.01
Table 4. “Pearson correlation analysis and descriptive Statistics”. Source: authors
Table 5 shows that demographic variables (i.e., gender, age, education, length of
service, type of training and learning experience) were entered in Step 1 and then
followed by entering independent variable (supervisor support and supervisor
communication) in Step 2, and mediating variable (motivation to learn) in Step 3.
Job performance was used as the dependent variable. An examination of
multicollinearity in the coefficients table shows that the tolerance value for the
relationship between the independent variable (supervisor support) and the
dependent variable (i.e., job performance) was .77, and the relationship between
supervisor communication and job performance was .86. While the tolerance value
for the relationship between supervisor’s role, motivation to learn, and job
performance was .88. These tolerance values were more than the established
tolerance value of .20 (as a rule of thumb), indicating the variables were not
affected by multicollinearity problems (Fox, 1991; Tabachnick et al., 2001).
Table 5 shows the results regression analysis that was summarized in the three
steps. In step 1, the length of service was only found to be a significant predictor
of job performance, accounting for 14 percent of the variance in the dependent
variable. Step 2 showed that the supervisor support (ß=.34, p<0.01) was found to
be a significant predictor of job performance, whereas supervisor communication
(ß=.17, p<0.05) was not a significant predictor of job performance. The inclusion
of these two variables in Step 2 had explained 29 percent of the variance in the
dependent variable. The inclusion of motivation to learn in Step 3 of the process
reveals that motivation to learn is a mediating variable for the relationship between
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
supervisor’s role in training programs (i.e., supervisor support and supervisor
communication) and job performance (ß=.23, p<0.05), therefore H1 and H2 were
fully supported. This relationship explains that before the inclusion of motivation to
learn into Step 2, supervisor support was significantly correlated with job
performance (Step 2:ß=.34, p<0.01) while supervisor communication was not
significantly correlated with job performance (Step 2:ß=.17, p<0.05). As shown in
Step 3, (after the inclusion of motivation to learn into this step), the previous
significant relationship between supervisor support and job performance did not
change to insignificant (ß=.33, p<0.01), but the effect size of such relationship
between variables were decreased. Conversely, the previous insignificant
relationship between supervisor’s communication and job performance did not
change to significant (ß=.14, p>0.05) when motivation to learn was entered in
Step 3. In terms of explanatory power, the inclusion of motivation to learn in Step
3 had explained 37 percent of the variance in the dependent variable. In fact there
was an increase in the strength of relationship between supervisor’s role in training
programs, motivation to learn and job performance in Step 3, signalling that
motivation to learn acts as a partial mediating variable in the training program
model of the studied organization.
Variables Dependent variable (Job performance)
1 2 3 Controlling variables Gender
-.16 -.12 -.15
Age -.12 -.14 -.16 Education .08 .05 .08 Length of service -.25* -.11 -.10 Type of training -.06 .02 .01 Learning experience -.20 .01 .04 Independent variables Supervisor support
.34**
.33** Supervisor communication .17 .14 Mediating variable Motivation to learn
.23*
R Square .14 .29 .37 Adjusted R square .08 .22 .26 R Square change .14 .15 .05 F 2.25* 4.20*** 4.50*** F change 2.25* 8.79*** 5.51*
Note: Significance at *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001
Table 5. “Result for stepwise regression analysis”. Source: authors
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
6. Discussion and implications
The findings of this study demonstrate that motivation to learn does act as a partial
mediating variable in the relationship between supervisor’s role and job
performance in the organizational sample. In the organizational context,
supervisors have provided adequate support (e.g., encourage employees to attend
training programs and apply newly acquired knowledge and skills that they gain
from training programs in their jobs) and used good communication practices (e.g.,
provide feedback, encourage discussion and openly deliver information on training)
when dealing with training programs. The majority of the employees perceive that
such supervisors’ role had increased their motivation to learn. When employees’
motivation to learn increased this may lead to higher job performance in the
organization.
This study provides significant impacts on three major aspects: theoretical
contribution, robustness of research methodology, and contribution to the human
resource development practitioners. In terms of theoretical contribution, this study
revealed two important outcomes. Firstly, motivation to learn partially mediated
the effect of supervisor support on job performance. This finding is consistent with
the studies by Gupta and Govindarajan (2000), Chiaburu and Takleab (2005) and
Ismail et al. (2007). Secondly, motivation to learn mediated the effect of
supervisor communication on job performance. This result is consistent with the
studies by Brinkerhoff et al. (1995), Brown et al. (2001) and Ismail et al. (2007).
In sum, the findings of this study show that the ability of supervisors to play proper
roles has not directly affected job performance, but it is partially mediated by
employees’ motivation to learn. For example, the ability of supervisors to play
proper roles in training programs will first invoke employees’ motivation to learn. If
employees’ motivation to learn has increased this may lead to an increased job
performance in the workplace. The notion of motivation to learn has been
successfully applied within the training management models of the studied
organization. In this sense, it has supported and broadened training research
literature mostly published in western countries.
With respect to the robustness of the research methodology, the survey
questionnaire that were developed based on the training management literature,
the in-depth interviews, the pilot study and the survey questionnaires have met the
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
acceptable standard of validity and reliability analysis. Hence, this may lead to the
production of accurate and reliable findings.
Regarding practical contributions, the findings of this study can be used as a
guideline by HRD managers to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of training
programs in their organizations. This objective may be achieved if the management
implements several important suggestions: firstly, customize training contents and
methods according to organizational needs and wants. For example, the content of
training programs for management employees should impart advanced human
skills that may help them to understand individuals’ cognitive, emotion and
psychomotor. In order to increase the capability of management employees,
professional trainers should be hired to teach them properly implementing
interpersonal communication skills, managing change, conflict and problem solving
techniques in the workplace. Secondly, allow supervisors to be involved in higher
level training committees so that they may clarify the needs and expectations of
employees at the grass root level. Thus, it may help to establish appropriate
training modules that can support organizational and human resource
management’s strategies and goals. Thirdly, change in the human resource policies
from hiring employees based on conforming to organization policies and procedures
to hiring employees based on creativity and innovations. This new hiring
perspective will help management to hire employees who possess higher levels of
knowledge, experience and competencies. Their capabilities may be used to train
operational employees in terms of attitude and working styles, as well as to handle
employees’ demands with better treatment like showing more respect, be honest
and accountable. Finally, review compensation and benefits system for supervisors
based on current organizational strategy and goals. For example, internal
organizational changes will increase duties and responsibilities of supervisors, this
may affect health, safety and stress at the workplace. These problems may be
decreased if the type, level and/or amount of rewards (e.g., pay rate and pay rise)
are increased according to supervisors’ workloads and performance. If
organizations heavily consider these suggestions, this may result in an increase in
supervisors’ motivation to support organizational and departmental training’s
strategies and goals.
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
7. Limitations and directions for future research
The conclusion drawn from the results of this study should consider the following
limitations. Firstly, the data was only taken once during the duration of this study.
Therefore, it did not capture the developmental issues such as intra-individual
change and restrictions of making inference to participants and/or causal
connections between variables of interest. Secondly, this study only examines the
relationship between latent variables and the conclusion drawn from this study
does not specify the relationship between specific indicators for the independent
variable, mediating variable and dependent variable. Thirdly, this study only
focused on particular elements of a supervisor’s role and neglected other important
factors (e.g., employee’s readiness, leadership styles of the supervisor and
supervisors training framing). Fourthly, other training outcomes (e.g., job
satisfaction, job commitment, job turnover and training transfer) that are
significant for organizations and employees are not discussed in this study. Fifthly,
although a substantial amount of variance in dependent measures explained by the
significant predictors is identified, there are still a number of unexplainable factors
that can be incorporated to identify the causal relationship among variables and
their relative explanatory power (Tabachnick et al., 2001). Finally, the sample for
this study was taken using a convenient sampling technique in a single public
organization. These limitations may decrease the ability of generalizing the results
of this study to other organizational settings.
The conceptual and methodology limitations of this study need to be considered
when designing future research. Firstly, the organizational and personal
characteristics that act as a potential variable and can influence the effectiveness
of supervisor’s role in training programs should be further explored. If
organizational and personal characteristics are used in research, this may provide
meaningful perspectives for understanding the individual differences and
similarities that affect training outcomes. Secondly, the weaknesses of cross-
sectional research design may be overcome if longitudinal studies are used to
collect data and describe the patterns of change and the direction and magnitude
of causal relationships between variables of interest. Thirdly, the findings of this
study may produce different results if this study is done in more than one
organization. Fourthly, as an extension of the motivation to learn, other theoretical
constructs of organizational climate (e.g., transfer of competency, training policy
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A. Ismail – L. L. C. Sieng – M.M.B. Abdullah – S. K. Francis
and procedures, facilities, budget and employee readiness) needs to be considered
because they have been widely recognized as an important link between supervisor
support and training outcomes (Yamnil & McClean, 2001; Blanchard & Thacker,
2007; Ismail et al., 2007; Ismail et al., 2008b). The importance of these issues
needs to be further discussed in future researches.
8. Conclusion
The findings of this study confirm that motivation to learn acts as a partial
mediating variable in the relationship between a supervisor’s role and job
performance. This result has supported and broadened training research literature
mostly published in Western organizational settings. Therefore, current research
and practice within training management models needs to consider motivation to
learn as a vital aspect of the organizational training system where increasing
individuals’ motivation to learn may strongly induce subsequent positive personal
outcomes (e.g., satisfaction, commitment, trust, good working ethics and
performance). Hence, these positive outcomes may direct employees to sustain
and achieve organisational competitiveness in the current globalized economy.
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