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A comparative analysis of the design of childrens
science textbooks (1114 years) in India and the UK
Analysis of four titles:
Living Science and NCERT (India)
Letts and CGP (UK)
Vidhushri Ladha
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the Master of Arts in Book Design,
University of Reading, 2014
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ABSTRACT
This dissertation identifes features that contribute to the design of science
textbooks being used in India and the UK, for children of the age group of
1114 years. Two samples of science textbooks for this age group have been
selected from each of the two countries. These are analysed using a frame-
work adapted from existing models. Theories related to strategic reading, the
design of instructional text and the design of textbooks have been incorpo-
rated into the framework to make it suitable for this analysis. The books are
compared and described under the three levels of the framework micro,
macro and meta (Gillieson: 2008). The analysis of this dissertation identifies
the similarities and differences between the chosen samples of textbooks
and highlights design features that contribute to the effect of page layout in
childrens science textbooks.
Studying has been described as a process of selective reading. Students
are known to apply a number of reading strategies while approaching
instructional text. Science textbooks for children are identified as complex
information documents that need to have a clear layout so that children can
comprehend the most out of them. Features like grids, navigation system,
illustrations and diagrams; hierarchy, typographic differentiation, the use of
colour and the spatial arrangement of elements in layout, have been found
to contribute to the overall appearance and impact of childrens science
textbooks that are being used in both countries.
Layout & Typesettingby Vidhushri Ladha
Photography and scans by Vidhushri Ladha
Printedat the University of Reading
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OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1 Existing frameworks for graphic description
2.1.1 Anderson and Armbrusters strategy foranalysis of textbooks (1985)
2.1.2 Kostelnick and Roberts taxonomy forvisual vocabulary (1998)
2.1.3 Gilliesons framework for graphicdescription in book design (2008)
2.2 Instructional text
2.2.1 Strategic reading2.2.2 Layout and typography
2.2.3 Illustrations, diagrams and colour
2.3 A framework for analysing the design of
childrens science textbooks
3. Methodology
3.1 Education system in India and the UK
3.2 Samples of textbooks for analysis
3.3 Method of analysis
4. Analysis
4.1 Meta-level
4.2 Macro-level
4.3 Micro-level
5. Conclusion
Appendices
Bibliography
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1. INTRODUCTION
A textbook belongs to the genre1of books that is used by students to study
and learn. It is an information document that needs to be read strategically,
in order to be comprehended. Every student develops an individual way of
learning and hence, a textbook can be used in several different ways. Text-
books need to be designed in a way to reflect the needs of the reader. The
appropriate design and production of school textbooks is of vital importance.
Textbooks occupy the heart of education in schools even today and serve
as important sources of information for the students. Richaudeau (1980)
emphasises that the choice of textbook can play a fundamental role in the
formulation of ideas and the development of the future generations.
There have been several theories and experiments related to the design of
instructional text for children. While Burt (1959) and Tinker (1965) shed
light on the psychological study of typography and the basis of effective read-
ing, Hartley (1982, 1994) has published several experiments and studies on
the structural use of typography. Waller (1982, 1985) has analysed the use of
format to signal argument structures in non-fiction texts and also provides
design research for selective reading strategies. In recent times Waller
(2012) has revisited the importance of typographic organisation and layout
in communicating graphic argument. Other models by Twyman (1979,
1985), Ashwin (1979), Goldsmith (1980), Brody (1982), Richards (1984) and
serve as helpful tools to analyse illustrations and diagrams and their rela-
tionship with the corresponding text.
Similar to the design of other genres of books, factors like legibility, content,
typography, layout, illustrations, production and materials, contribute to the
making of a textbook. Economic considerations and cultural influences are
two important factors that can affect the design of a textbook. The content of
various textbooks might be similar for a particular age group, but the budget
also has an effect on the quality of communication. The choice of illustra-
tions, printing technique, materials, and quality of text are all affected to
some extent by economic boundaries and decisions.
This dissertation aims at performing a comparative analysis to study the
design of childrens science textbooks being used in India and the UK,
for the age group of 1114 years. For this purpose two samples of science
1 Waller (2012) describes genres as natural categories identified by a language community.Textbooks, newspapers, magazines all are the names of genres. Textbook is a everyday genrewhich owes its being to its layout. Readers recognise a textbook when they see one.
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textbooks from the age group have been chosen from both countries and
studied in terms of design. Drawing from existing frameworks and research
models, a framework has been adapted for the analysis of childrens science
textbooks. This framework incorporates several features related to the design
of instructional text and is used to analyse the chosen samples of textbooks
under the micro, macro and meta levels of design. These three levels are
borrowed and adapted from Gilliesons framework (2008). This disserta-
tion analyses the similarities and differences in these samples and identifies
features that affect the design and impact of the textbooks.
This dissertation is structured as follows:
Chapter 2 summarises the research under two broad categories
(2.1) elaborates on three chosen frameworks for the graphic description and
analysis of documents
(2.2) outlines theories and studies related to strategic reading and the designof instructional text.
The chapter concludes with the description of a framework that is based on
these existing models and adapted for this dissertation.
Chapter 3 introduces the samples of textbooks chosen for the analysis,
explaining in brief the education system of the U.K. and India and the
reasons for the choice of the particular samples. This chapter also describes
the process used for the analysis of these samples.
Chapter 4 documents the analysis under the three levels of the framework
(4.1) Meta-level features which include navigation, grids, colour and the
physical features of the book
(4.2) Macro-level features that consider various elements of layout and their
spatial arrangement
(4.3) Micro-level features including details within typography and the use of
graphic elements.
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2. LITERATUREREVIEW
This chapter provides a summary of the research conducted for this disser-
tation under two main sections. The first section describes three models
that are useful sources in adapting a framework for the analysis of childrens
science textbooks. Textbooks deal with instructional text and belong to a
genre recognised for its layout and designed specifically for the purpose of
studying. Several factors need to be kept in mind while designing instruc-
tional material for children. The second section brings together theories and
studies that elaborate on the process of designing for instructional text.
2.1 EXISTING FRAMEWORKSFOR GRAPHICDESCRIPTION
Several theories and models provide basis for the analysis and visual descrip-
tion of books. Some studies help in understanding the readability, legibility
and structure of texts. Examples include: Tinkers research on effective
reading and comprehension (1965), Wallers model for typographic commu-
nication (1988) and his study on reading strategies and access structures
(1979), Ecos model for text analysis (1979), Walkers study on typography
for children (1954), Crystal and Davys linguistic framework (1969). Some
other models help in analysing pictures, typography, hierarchy, picture-text
relationship and the overall layout. These include theories like Bernhardts
continuum of visual organization (1985), Twymans schema for graphic
language (1979), models for studying diagrams and illustrations by Richard
(1984), Bertin (1967), Ashwin (1979) a nd Goldsmith (1980), Hartleys writ-
ings on designing for instructional text (1994) and several others.
In order to analyse childrens science textbooks, it is useful to draw on exist-
ing frameworks for graphic description. This section describes three such
frameworks that are useful in analysing textbooks and therefore it is import-
ant to consider them for this study.
2.1.1Anderson and Armbrusters strategy for analysis of textbooks (1985)
Anderson and Armbruster (1985) suggest that the design of textbooks can
affect how effectively students are able to read and comprehend information.
This is based on their combined notions on effective studying and the effect
of text on comprehension. This study refers to four general characteristics
structure, coherence, unity and audience appropriateness, which were stud-
ied during an investigation of childrens textbooks. (Anderson, Armbruster
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& Kantor 1980, 1983). Each of these characteristics are described and
discussed. This provides a simple model to analyse and investigate chil-
drens textbooks. While the other two frameworks discussed in sections 2.1.2
and 2.1.3 are for generic graphic documents, this study is specific to text-
books and thus becomes an important consideration for this dissertation.
2.1.1 (A) Structure2
Anderson and Armbruster define structure as a system of arrangement
of ideas in text and the nature of relationships connecting these ideas.
According to them, a textbook is a hierarchical arrangement of text units
and frames. Text units are the basic building blocks within a text structure
whereas the kind of text that informs the reader about a generic concept is
called a text frame. Their research suggests that the organisation of these
within a textbook influences the amount of information and the kind of
knowledge acquired by the student. They go on to elaborate that the authorspurpose dominates the structure of the text. The authors message should be
evident to the reader from the titles and headings and even a cursory glance
must give a fair idea of the topics covered. The text frames should have a
consistent structure as this helps the reader form expectations as the
book progresses.
2.1.1 (B) Coherence
The seamlessness with which ideas are woven together within text, and
presented to the reader, is what Anderson and Armbruster have called
coherence. Coherence operates at both global and local levels3. Anderson
and Armbruster emphasise that it is very important for the relationships
amongst ideas to be stated explicitly. If not done so, the reader often does not
get the intended message. In addition to this the referents should be made
clear. Obscure pronoun references are common in textbooks. These confuse
the readers and thus hinder the intended communication. The sequencing
of events also plays an important role in binding the text together. According
to the research, the sequencing should be unidirectional and must follow a
chronology so that the student can comprehend more effectively.
2.1.1 (C) Unity
Anderson and Armbruster define unity as the degree to which the text
addresses a single purpose. This is based on the notion of a limited capacity
and posits that short-term memory can hold only five to nine items at any
given time (Miller, 1956). Anderson and Armbruster state that the more
disunified the text, lower is the probability of integration. According to them
2 Structure is used here to refer to one of the four characteristics described byAnderson and Armbruster (1985)
3 Global refers to the level of the entire text and local refers to the level of individual sentences.
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each idea in the text unit or frame should contribute directly to the authors
purpose. It is helpful for the reader if text units that are less related to the
main text are set aside. For example, in appendices or boxed-in areas. Some
uses of pull-out boxes discussed in this model include
1. Teaching the necessary skills for understanding texts that follow
2. Lending authenticity to certain ideas present in the text
3. Elaborating on information present in the content area
4. Enhancing interest value through their attractive features.
2.1.1 (D) Audience Appropriateness
This refers to the extent to which the text matches the readers knowledge
base. According to Anderson and Armbruster, the possession of relevant
topic knowledge prior to reading, affects comprehension. Another line
of research related to this has focussed on vocabulary or word knowledge
(Anderson and Freebody, 1979).
In addition to structure, coherence, unity and audience appropriateness,
there are details that need to be investigated in a complex document such as
a textbook. This includes typography, diagrams, illustration, spatial arrange-
ment of elements, and the instructional quality of text. The following two
frameworks provide a platform to study these details and analyse both, the
text and the visual elements in a page layout.
2.1.2 Kostelnick and Roberts taxonomy for visual vocabulary (1998)
Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) believe that the key to analysing a profes-
sional document is to observe what is going on visually and find a way to
categorise it. Their research provides an interesting framework for exam-
ining visual language which distinguishes between various levels of design
in a professional document: intra, inter, extra and supra. Within this frame-
work, the intra and inter levels pertain primarily to text design, the extra-
level includes non-textual elements and the supra level considers the docu-
ment as a whole. Each of these levels, in turn, may contain design elements
in three coding modes: textual mode, spatial mode and graphic mode.
These modes supply the raw material of design the lines, the numbers,
the graphic elements and the spatial positioning of these elements on a
page. The three levels and the modes together form a 12-cell visual language
matrix [Table 1].This matrix is to be used as a tool for describing the visual
vocabulary of a given document. Each document is said to be unique in its
combination of cells on the matrix. However large or small the differences
may be, each document is said to have its own visual signature.
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2.1.2 (A) Intra-level
This level controls the local variations within text. It makes up the building
blocks of visible text. The textual mode includes type style, type size, case
and treatment. The spatial mode includes local spacing between textual
units whereas the graphic mode is about punctuation marks and a variety of
other local marks in a document.
2.1.2 (B) Inter-level
Inter-level includes elements that help the audience in understanding the
text by providing cues. Design within this level, arranges and divides the
text into units, making it more accessible to the reader. In the textual mode,
heading and numbers create units and hierarchy within text. The spatial
mode deals with paragraphs, indentation, justification, and the overall spac-
ing of units of text across the page. Listing devices like bullets, boxed inserts,
tables and charts form the graphic mode at this level.
2.1.2 (C) Extra-level
This level includes pictures, data, display, and other elements that
operate from outside the main text as individual entities with their own
visual vocabulary and conventional forms. Text is used as a supportive
element in this case and plays a descriptive role. Textual elements include
labels, titles and legends that help in understanding data and displays better.
The spatial mode deals with size, shape, and area and at times perspective,
that is covered by various diagrams like pie charts, bar graphs, and line
graphs. The graphic mode adds a third layer to these displays. It includes
textures, colours and other elements that are used to make these diagrams
visually richer.
2.1.2(D) Supra-level
This level includes elements that visually define the structure of the docu-
ment as a whole. It is closely connected to the other three levels and often
influences design decisions taken at those levels as well. Textual mode
includes elements that signal major breaks in the document or aid in
pagination. In the spatial mode, supra-level design includes arrangement of
extra-level elements within the document as well as elements like the orien-
tation of the page, page size and shape, paper thickness, folds, flaps, and
the like. The graphic mode at this level consists of marks, icons, colour, line
work and logos that unify pages or sections of the document; or that create
greater divisions.
Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) developed their studies focussing on techni-
cal communication and documents. Therefore, though their matrix has a
graphic mode, it focuses more on particular kind of graphics like graphs that
Textual Spatial Graphic
Intra 1type style, type size,case, treatment: italic,bols, shadow, outline
2spacing betweencharacters, spacingbetween words, verticalspacing
3punctution marks,symbols, treatment:underline, strikethrough
Inter 4headings, levels ofheadings numbers orletters that signal itemsin lists
5paragraphs,indentation, hangingindents, lists, justifiedand unjustified, centredtext, line lengths,margins, text arrangedin tables and organisa-tional charts, leading
6bullets and listingdevices, gray scaleshighlighting text,linework in tables,organisation charts,decision trees
Extra 7labels, call-outs,captions for picturesand data displays,numerical labels,legends for datadisplays
8data displays andpictures, the orien-tation, size, viewingangles, perspective
9line weights or shadingon pictures and datadisplays, details onpictures, use of colourfor pictures or datadisplays
Supra 10page headers or foot-ers, navigational bars,major section orchapter headings, tablebels, titles on thecover or the spine,initial letters signal-ling the start of a textsegment
11shape, thicknessand size of the page,orientation of thepage, section dividers,embossing, placementof data displays andpictures in thedocument
12colour or texture ofpaper page borders,boxes and lines aroundpictures, lines in pageheaders or footers,pictures of icons placedbehind the text in thewhole document
Table 1.Visual language matrix. adapted from Kostelnick (2008)
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are used in technical communication. While analysing science textbooks, it
is also important to study diagrams and illustrations, which form an inte-
gral part of science textbooks. While Kostelnick and Roberts matrix (1998)
is useful in analysing the spatial arrangement of elements in a page layout,
there is a need to consider some other models that help in analysing illustra-
tions and diagrams and provide a framework that is more specific to books.
Gilliesons framework (2008), which is described next, brings together
several such models and theories.
2.1.3 Gilliesons framework for graphic description in book design (2008)
Gillieson (2008) developed a framework as a schema for graphic description
in book design. The framework aims to organise graphic features of books.
As stated by Gillieson,
A fundamental aim of the framework is to incorporate various
relevant models into a unifying system, to help standardise these and
to show how apparently different descriptive schemas are related.
(2008: 148)
In order to include a wide variety of books, she has developed this frame-
work with reference to a corpus of childrens science books. Gillieson
uses this framework to demonstrate how comparative descriptions can be
produced of chosen books.
The broad framework is reproduced in Table 2. The main organising prin-
ciple of the framework is the distinction between the two descriptive catego-
ries of rule and context that are laid out on the vertical axis. The other formal
categories fall into micro, macro and meta-level features and make up the
rows in the framework. Each of these levels incorporates several models and
theories that have been listed down with a short description.4
Rule Context
Micro
Macro
Meta
Table 2.A summary of Gilliesons framework for graphic description
4 Detailed description of each of the features can be found in Gilliesons 2008 thesis.
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2.1.3 (A) Micro-level features
This level brings together theories that study the building blocks of a docu-
ment. Gillieson has described these components as being analogues to
Engelhardts elementary graphic objects (2002: 15). These features include
description of typographic elements, illustrations, photographs, and the tone
of writing. This level consists of six informative models that can be organ-
ised into four broad themes writing, graphic elements, diagrammatic
representation, and polysemic illustration and photography.
a) Typographic and editorial layout parts (Twyman 1982, Schriver 1997)
At this level a matrix is produced [Table 3]that helps assessing typography
with reference to Schrivers components of book design (1997) and in terms
of basic functions and qualities after Twyman (1982). Gillieson assembles a
list of editorial parts based on Schrivers (1997) and Bernhadt (1985). Thisincludes body text, footnote text, headings and subheadings, itemised
lists, indented quotes, taglines and captions. These are analysed against
Twymans (1982:11) definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic features of typogra-
phy. Intrinsic features of typography are those characteristics of letterforms
themselves that result from the technology of production whereas extrinsic
qualities relate to the configuration of these.
b) Register and tone of writing (Nash, 1980)
This model brings together Nashs categories of the register of writing
(1990: 121124) and the tone of writing (1980: 153). He describes variants
within each of these categories. The register of writing defines the speaking
style and reflects the occupation and voice of the speaker. This includes the
informant, the instructor, the disputant and the entertainer. Within the four
registers, the writing may follow either a formal tone or an informal tone.
c) Graphic formats for quantitative date (Macdonald-Ross, 1977)
This category involves diagrams and graphs that are identified as discrete
and elemental components of layout according to Macdonald-Rosss lexicon
for quantitative data formats for graphic description (1977). This includes
terminology for identifying whole diagrams as well as their constituent
parts. Macdonald-Ross reviews the ways in which quantitative information
can be presented with a list of principal formats (1977: 364368).
d) Formal features of diagrams and graphic elements (Bertin, 1967)
Bertins schema [Figure 1]is a reductive graphic syntax that applies to the
formal qualities of graphic components. Running clockwise from the top the
figure this includes basic elements of size, value, pattern, colour, orientation
and shape. This model can be used to study and describe the formal quali-
ties of diagrams and charts found in several complex texts.
Intrinsic qual it ies Extrinsic qual it ies
Body text
Footnote text
Headings (andsubheadings)
Itemised lists
Indented quotes andcall-outs
Taglines
Captions
Table 3.Typographic and editorial layout parts (after Twyman 1982and Schriver 1997)
Figure 1Bertins schema of the basic elements of the graphicsystem (1967: 43)
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e) Variables for describing illustration (Ashwin, 1979)
Ashwins analysis of graphic imagery leads to a series of visual syntax vari-
ables in seven categories (1979: 5765): consistency, gamut, framing, place-
ment, proxemics, kinetic and naturalism. These offer a simple and direct
vocabulary to describe polysemic illustration of all kinds.
f) Variables for describing pictorial representation (Twyman, 1985)
Twymans model takes into account the inherit complexity of visual form, in
response to what he sees as a lack of understanding of them (1985: 305). He
proposes descriptive categories to describe pictorial representation keeping
in mind factors such as means of reproduction, the element of time as well
as issues that arise due to interpretation (1985: 260295).
2.1.3 (B) Macro-level features
Macro-level components combine to form larger groupings on the page. The
two-page spread forms the boundary for macro-level descriptions. This level
includes groups of graphic elements and the relationships between them. It
brings together several models that describe visual relationships, picture-text
relationships and also analyse illustrations and diagrams. The macro-level
includes seven categories
a) Gestalt forms and page layout
This category engages the five central principles of Gestalt psychology
good continuation, proximity, similarity, closure and figure strength. The
unifying principle of Gestalt theory is that the brain makes assumptions
about images in order to perceive them. In her discussion of Gestalt princi-
ples and their application to graphic communication, Schriver suggests that
Gestalt-induced cues can affect a readers interpretation of a text (1997: 306).
b) Schema for describing graphic language (Twyman, 1979)
Twymans schema (1979) presents a number of theoretical possibilities in
terms of approaches to graphic language. The matrix developed [Table 4]is
based on the intersection of variables of graphic structure and modality. The
horizontal axis describes methods of configuration. This represents a slow
transition from pure linearity to extreme non-linearity, depicting the degree
to which the reading order is prescribed by the order of graphic elements.
The vertical axis represents the mode of symbolism, which describes the
form of graphic language used. This matric can be used to answer two
fundamental questions as stated by Twyman (1979: 117): What should be the
mode of symbolisation and what should be the mode of configuration?
PureLinear
LinearInter-rupted
List Linearbranching
Matrix Non-lineardirectedviewing
Non-linearmostoptionsopen
Verbal/numerical
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pictorial& verbalnumerical
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Pictorial 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Schematic 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Table 4.Twymans schema for describing graphic language (1979, reproduced from 1982: 8)
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c) Model for analysing illustration (Goldsmith, 1980)
Goldsmiths model (1980) has been developed as an analytical tool for
teachers and students [Table 5]. The vertical axis shows the three levels of
response of viewers to a picture syntax, semantics and pragmatics (1980:
204) and the horizontal axis intersects with the four visual factors common
to all supportive illustration unity, location, emphasis and text parallels
(1987: 54). This model helps to analyse several features of illustration includ-
ing its relation to its surrounding text.
d) Model for analysing diagrams (Richards, 1984)
Richards (1984) presents a model for analysing the structure of diagrams
[Figure 2]. This model is built on the three semiotic levels as used by Gold-
smith (1980). It is also based on three variables, out of which two, Richard
argues, are essential in the creation of a diagram the mode of correspon-
dence, the mode of depiction and the mode of organisation. The boundaryline between the various categories in this diagram is flexible, thus making
it an appropriate model in describing a wide variety of diagrams.
e) Picture-text relationships
This category is concerned with the relationship between the text and visual
elements in a page layout. It brings together terms proposed by Hegarty
et al. (1991: 648652), Schriver (1997: 41213) and Barthes (1977: 3741).
Redundant, complementary, supplementary, juxtapositional, stage-setting
and relaying, are terms that arise from Barthes and Hegarty et als discus-
sion and can be used to describe picture-text relationships in a wide variety
of material.
f) Rhetorical clusters
This category identifies Schrivers rhetorical clusters (1997) as an import-
ant group of elements responsible for the semantic unity on a page. Schriver
proposes the compilation of a list of generic layout elements contained in a
typical document, text parts that constitute different kind of rhetorical clus-
ters (1997: 3434) illustrations with annotations, body text with footnotes,
series and front matter. This category works with the micro-level category of
typographic and editorial layout parts to identify conventional groupings on
a page.
g) Discursive structures (Nash 1980)
This category highlights two variables discussed by Nash discourse struc-
tures (Nash 1980: 95) which are helpful in studying the shape of written
text and linking structures (Nash 1980: 2140) which focus on how specific
terms are linked to others within a page layout. Among other applications,
this category can be useful in identifying books in which verbal and graphic
languages seem to be at odds with one another.
Unity Location Emphasis Text parallels
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Table 5.Goldsmiths model for analysing illustrations (1980)
Figure 2Richards taxonomy of diagrams (1984: 9/5)
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2.1.3 (C) Meta-level features
This level includes underlying principles that govern the overall design of
the book. This is the level that makes this framework customised for analys-
ing books specifically. Characteristics like the artefact structure, book format
and province, facing pages, grid, granularity and density; design maxims 5
and book access parts are taken into consideration at the meta-level. These
are organised into two groups that could overlap models describing struc-
tures6and models describing design maxims. This category also includes
the structural qualities of the book object: size, printing, specifications
and binding.
2.1.3 (D) Rule and context
Rule and context are the two categories on the vertical axis of this frame-
work. These are conceptual distinctions that allow graphic features to be
assessed in light of different critical perspectives. Rule-based featurespertain to the internal logic of a book and how it reflects constraints of
printing technology, as well as the rules of language and typography. Context
based features are one that emerge from the surroundings of a book and
draw on shared social or historical codes for rhetorical significance. Sauss-
ure (1922), Waller (1987), Twyman (1985), Gombrich (1968), and several
others draw parallels to this concept of rule and context. Because rule
and context are ways of interpreting descriptions, this analysis, which is
a comparison of spreads focussing on formal differences, follows a largely
rule-oriented description.
Out of the three frameworks described here, Gilliesons framework is best
suited to take as a basis for this dissertation; for two major reasons: (1) It
brings together several descriptive models relevant to visual communication,
in turn providing a tool for performing well-structured and thorough
analysis. (2) Gillieson developed this framework taking into reference a
corpus of childrens science books. This makes it more relevant to the topic
of this dissertation.
While Gilliesons framework, described above, brings together some models
that would be useful in analysing childrens science textbooks, Kostelnick
and Roberts matrix (1998) can be used for studying details in typogra-
phy and layout. Hence, bringing selected parts of both these frameworks
together might help in laying out a framework specific to the requirements
of this dissertation. In addition to this, some writers like Hartley (1994)
5 Design maxims (after Bonsiepe, 1968) deals with the typographic and graphic principles thatgovern that design and layout of a book.
6 Here, the word structure has been used to refer to a group of elements governing the design ofa book.
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provide several theories specific to the design of instructional text. These are
important considerations while analysing textbooks. Some of such studies
are summarised in the next section and shall add to the development of the
required framework.
2.2 INSTRUCTIONAL TEXT
Textbooks beong to the genre of instructional text which is usually more
complex7in its structure and appearance than continuous prose (Hartley,
1994). A textbook is used by students for the purpose of studying. Students
tend to use it in various different ways and therefore the layout needs to
be clear and consistent. In addition to the various models discussed in the
previous section, this section brings together theories and facts that cover
three major properties of instructional text the process of strategic reading,typography and layout and the use of diagrams and illustrations.
2.2.1 Strategic reading
Studying is an example of what is called a selective or strategic reading
process (Paris & Myers, 1981; Pugh 1 975). Strategic readers use a document
to achieve a certain goal. Strategic reading is enabled by what Warde (1974)
called the three great privileges of printing to turn back, to look forward
and to stop and think. The confidence with which authors can make predic-
tions about their readers differs from text to text. Perhaps the only thing that
they can predict in the case of textbooks is that most of the students must
read selectively. There are several theories to support this. Observation of
reading styles and strategies by Pugh (1975) and Thomas (1976) shows that
a straight-through linear strategy is not typical of efficient readers. Pugh
(1975) identified five strategies of reading: Receptive Reading, Responsive
Reading, Skimming, Searching and Scanning. These theories emphasise
that students read in a selective fashion, scan the text and then select areas
for special attention. Strategic reading is at the heart of document literacy,
which is a key aspect of a wider term, functional literacy (OECD, 1997). It
refers to the ability of using documents to achieve purposes and solve prob-
lems (Waller, 2012).
7 Gillieson (2008) refers to the term complex layout as one that has a wide variety of approachesto design, a range of illustrative and diagrammatic forms. An alternative term, integrated text orintegrated book has been used to describe layout in which typographic and pictorial elementsare intertwined, as for instance by Germano Facetti in his 1964 Penrose article The integratedbook.
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According to Waller (1979), conventional textbooks are open to anyone and
authors know comparatively little about the abilities, purposes, opinions,
prior knowledge and circumstances of their readers. Most textbooks are used
by students belonging to different cultural and educational backgrounds.
Hence, rather than locking the readers to a single linear sequence, it is
important to make these texts accessible for a range of different purposes.
Waller (2012) talks about the linearity of language at the most basic level.
In most languages, the order of wording within a sentence is critical. The
history of paper documents show the development of various methods that
have been used to overcome this linearity of language word spacing, punc-
tuation, the codex, headings, page numbers, indexes, typographic structures
and multimodal layouts evolved over centuries. These make the act of read-
ing a slow and strategic process in which readers deploy a range of strate-
gies like searching, skimming, note-taking and so on to achieve their goals.
Thus, accessibility of text liberates the reader from the linearity of language.Newspapers, textbooks, user guides, magazines, all of these constitute what
is called local genres. Layout is the most signifying feature of each of these.
Readers recognise them from their layouts. The graphic layout of such
genres contains rules or affordances for their use.
Waller (1979: 175) explains the term access structure as the co-ordinated
use of typographically signalled structural cues that help students to read
texts using selective sampling strategies. The usage of these typographi-
cally signalled devices leads to better organisation of text, and hence helps
the reader gain an overview of the text and locate relevant parts efficiently.
Waller (1982) divides these structures on the basis of their roles into ones
that have a global role and assist the overview of a subject area. These
include contents lists, concept diagrams, glossaries, objectives, summaries
and index. And the second kind are the ones that work at a local level and
help in actually engaging the authors argument. Headings and layout are
the two main local access structures.
2.2.2 Layout and typography
There are two main elements of layout and typography that shall be an inte-
gral part of analysing childrens science textbooks in this dissertation. The
first deals with the spatial arrangement of text and the effect of typographic
cues in instructional text while the other is the role of headings in textbooks.
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2.2.2 (A) Organisation of text
According to Waller (2012), students need information to be broken down
into chunk and structures by using headings, illustrations, notes and other
study aids. This is what Anderson and Armbruster (1985) call considerate
text. This term could be applied to any text that fulfils the needs of the read-
ers, rather than just presenting the arguments and thoughts of the writer.
Waller (2012) states that there are two factors that determine a readers
response to a text: the readers attained knowledge and the readers relation-
ship to the text itself.
Garofalo (1988) emphasises that the organisation of text is an important
factor relating to reader comprehension. She quotes Gage and Berliner:
The use of structure is something that when pointed out to students,
makes their learning more efficient, better remembered and moreuseful. It is important for students to see a framework of facts,
concepts and rules that they are being asked to learn. (1984: 274)
Hartley (1994) emphasises that space plays an important role in clarifying
text. It is space that separates letters from each other, it is space that sepa-
rates words and lines from each other, it is punctuation marks that separates
phrases, clauses and paragraphs and it is headings that separates sections
from one another. Both, Burnhill and Hartley (1982) maintain that, given
a particular text and page size, one can manipulate the spatial arrangement
of the text so as to enhance clarity, retrieval and comprehension. Hartley
(1994) discusses how both horizontal and vertical spacing can be used to
separate and to group components of text. According to Hartley (1994),
instructional text is more complex than prose. The argument here is that the
underlying structure of complex text can be demonstrated more clearly to
readers by consistent and planned use of vertical and horizontal spacing.
Other than spacing, Hartley (1994) and Garofalo (1988) provide research
and experiments that demonstrate that typographic and spatial cues also act
as important aids in understanding text by highlighting information and
differentiating between the important and less important parts which in
turn enhances the learning process. Garofalo (1988) describes a typographic
cue as a proposed vehicle by which the reader is made aware of the struc-
ture. Hershberger and Terry (1965) also support this study and state that
distinguishing between various categories of information allows a student to
adjust his style of reading to levels of importance.
2.2.2 (B) Role of headings
One of the ways of organising text such that students comprehend most
from it, is by the use of headings and sub-headings. Waller (1982) lists
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headings as one of the major devices to assist in local accessibility of text.
Although headings have an organising function at the global level, their
primary function is said to be an orienting one. There are certain questions
that arise regarding the use of headings What should they say? Where
to put them? Waller (1982) further defines three basic kinds of headings
Cross-headings are the one that interrupt the text and denote a change of
subject, side-headings, on the other hand, allow the flow of text to continue
and can aid in summarising a topic and running headings are used to
summarise the contents on a page and inform the reader about the specific
information on a page.
According to Hartley and Jonassen (1983), there are two broad ways in which
headings help the reader to acquire knowledge from a piece of text. Firstly,
during an initial reading, headings help in the organisation of the incom-
ing information and hence help recall. Secondly, while revisiting a piece ofinformation, headings help in locating the desired information. The specific
role to be played by headings depends upon the nature of the document and
the readers degree of familiarity with it (Swarts et al., 1980). A good head-
ing needs to be written keeping in mind the readers prior knowledge and
the readers needs in mind. The access function of headings depends upon a
meaningful and user-oriented construction of headings (Hartley and Jonas-
sen, 1983).
2.2.2 (C) Illustrations and diagrams
Science textbooks are documents where illustrations and diagrams are
integral parts of the content. While analysing these books it is important
to understand the role of pictures8in instructional text and how they affect
the layout. Gilliesons framework (2008) includes some important and
descriptive models on pictorial representations within its micro and macro
levels Bertins study of features of diagrams (1967), Ashwins variables for
describing illustration (1979), Twymans variables for describing pictorial
illustration (1985), Richards taxonomy for analysing diagrams (1984) and
Goldsmiths model for analysing illustrations (1980). All these togetherprovide a strong foundation for analysing pictures present in childrens
science textbooks. When it comes to instructional texts, the relation of the
picture with the audience plays a vital role and there are several additional
properties of diagrams and pictures that need to be considered.
8 Twyman (1985) uses the word picture to mean some hand-made or machine made image thatrelates, however, distinctly, to the appearance or structure of real or imagined things. Herethe word picture refers to visual forms used in a textbooks, like illustrations, diagrams andphotographs.
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a) Picture and the audience
According to Hartley (1994), what may be obvious for the person creat-
ing an illustration or a diagram might not be known at all to the reader. It
is important for the designer to assess the value and effectiveness of the
diagrams used. Does the reader consider the diagram to be helpful? Does
the reader remember the content presented? Does that reader understand
and comprehend the diagram? These are some questions that need to be
asked while working on diagrams within text.
Brody (1982) states that pictorial interpretation is closely related to the
individual backgrounds and experiences of the reader. Even students from
the same background often comprehend a picture in different manners.
One possible explanation for this would be that while looking at a picture
each student might focus at a different aspect of the picture. The problem is
worst when the picture presented to the students is relatively unfamiliar. Inthat case the ambiguity and the number or interpretations increases. Thus it
becomes essential to provide more precise and detailed information to
the students.
b) Role of pictures in instructional text
It is important to know the role of a picture in a layout, in order to project
it to the reader in an effective way. Twyman (1985) describes several uses of
pictures. These roles play some part in effective communication. According
to Twyman (1985), while some pictures are designed to persuade or exhort,
others have instruction or provision of information as their major purpose.
He also agrees that several pictures are developed and used primarily to
give pleasure to the spectator and for aesthetic and decorative purposes.
Another form of picture discussed by him includes using pictorial language
as a means to problem solving. Brody (1982) discusses the role of pictures
specifically in instructional text. He emphasises that pictures should be
included in textbooks on the basis of their instructional quality rather than
their decorative ones. However, pictures are probably most often chosen on
basis of cost, attractiveness and availability. He lists down five main roles ofpictures in instructional text (Brody, 1982: 302):
1. Repeat information present in the text
2. Provide additional information
3. Help in retention of information
4. Stimulate recall of previous information
5. Provide either introduction of new material or review of material after
it is read
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Hartley (1994: 80) also discusses five well-defined roles of illustrations and
diagrams in instructional text
1. An affective role: enhancing interest and motivation
2. An attentional role: attracting and directing attention
3. A didactic role: facilitating learning by explaining or showing some
thing that is difficult to convey solely in words
4. A supportive role: enhancing the learning of less-able readers
5. A retentional role: facilitating long-term recall.
Hence, there are several roles that a picture plays in instructional text other
than just adding to the aesthetics of the book. One of the major roles of
pictures is that they aid the recall of the textual material in instructional text.
This has been tested by Levie and Lentz (1982) who found that the recall of
illustrated text is better than the use of only words.
c) Positioning and labelling diagrams
The placement of pictures within instructional text plays a crucial role in
their effectiveness. When placed before, they can give an overview of the
text that follows; when placed after, they can help the reader to review what
has already been read, often resulting in better retention when compared to
pictures placed before (Brody, 1982). Therefore the placement of pictures
should be based on the function that they need to serve.
If pictures are divorced from the text, the readers are less likely to look at
them. The positioning of illustrations and diagrams is important because of
their didactic and attentional roles, as listed by Hartley (1994). He provides
three ways of drawing the readers attention towards pictures. Firstly, by
referring to them within the text; secondly, to label parts of the illustration;
and thirdly; by using captions. Brody (1982) also emphasises on referring
to pictures within text as a way to direct student attention to the picture at
the time most appropriate for learning. For a picture to be most effective,
it is important to control both what the learner is looking at and when it
is to be examined (Brody, 1982: 303). The placement of the picture on thepage can help eliminate some of the difficulties that are to do with direct-
ing the students attention to the picture at the required moment. One of
the primary reasons for doing this is to place the picture in the appropriate
context, hence reducing the number of possible interpretations.
The use of captions can help reduce student ambiguity. One of the most
efficient ways of answering many of the questions raised upon viewing an
illustration is by informing the student about the content and purpose of
the illustration (Brody, 1982). Gomrich (1972) emphasises on captions to be
one of the most critical variables in the proper understanding of pictures.
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He suggests that they can often compensate for the lack of context. Addition-
ally, Jones et al. (1984) provide an argument that it is easier to understand
diagrams when there is an organisation in their labels. The chunking of
labels under appropriate heading has a marked effect on comprehension
and recall. Consistency is important in the placement of labels and captions
throughout the text; hence their positioning becomes important as well.
Labels and captions should be placed in a way that all of them are clearly
visible and dont get lost amongst one other (Hartley, 2004).
d) Pictorial format, complexity and size
There are several pictorial formats used in textbooks. Some of these include
colour, black and white, realistic, photographs, cartoons and simple line
drawings. There have been several studies to research the effectiveness
of these pictorial formats. These have been quite contradictory and the
most that can be said is that no single format is the best for all occasions.It depends on the context, the learners, and the content (Brody, 1982).
However the picture preference pattern is stable for students of all ages.
Myatt and Carter (1979) performed a comprehensive study through which
they concluded that both children and young adults firstly prefer photo-
graphs and give second preference to realistic drawings. Dwyer (1972) also
reported that college students have a preference for more realistic formats.
Brody (1982) advises the use of different kinds of formats within the same
book, as the students tend to lose interest if one pictorial mode dominates.
Complexity of pictures also plays a role in holding students attention. More
the number of pictorial elements in a picture; the more complex it is said to
be. A research suggests that children find complex pictures more interesting
and spend more time comprehending them as compared to less complex
ones (Brody, 1982). However according to Wohlwill (1975), too much
complexity can lead to decreased interest and an increase in the compre-
hension time. Hence, it is important to manage the level of complexity. The
appropriate level of complexity would depend upon the developmental stage
of the learners as well as their past experiences (Brody, 1982).
Apart from picture complexity, another factor that affects the effectiveness of
a picture is its dynamic quality. According to Travers & Alvarado (1970), the
importance of using pictures of a dynamic nature is understood by apparent
tendency of students to look longer and respond more readily to pictures
that are dynamic. Hence according to this theory, dynamic images are more
interesting to students than static images.
Picture size is closely related to the publication costs, as the picture size
increases so does the cost. However while reducing the size of a picture care
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must be taken that its important features can still be recognised and it does
not affect the attractiveness of the picture. Kosslyn (1975) reported that more
details of a mental image of an object are remembered when the object is
imagined next to a small object.
2.2.2(D) Use of colour
In textbooks today, the use of colour cannot be ignored. It plays several roles
other than just adding aesthetic value and making the books more attractive.
With the advent of print technology, colour dominates the effect of textbooks
on children today. Colour contributes to information design as well as navi-
gation in textbooks. Tying colour to information is as elementary as colour
technique in art, To paint well is simply this: to put the right colour in the
right place, in Klees ironic prescription. Tufte (1990) lists some fundamen-
tal uses of colour in information design: to label, to measure, to represent or
imitate reality and to decorate or enliven. In the case of textbooks colour is
also used to aid learning. Gattegno (1962) and Jones (1968) have developed
separate methods of teaching young children to read by using colour combi-
nations to give additional phonetic information.
Colour combinations also have a great influence on the legibility of print.
Tinker (1965) states that brightness contrast between print and paper is
perhaps the most important factor in the hygiene of vision. Child et al.
(1962) performed a study comparing effects of colour between the two sexes
of children of different ages. One of the interesting conclusions was that
children at all ages prefer cooler colours. Skoff and Pollack (1969) tested the
visual acuity of children (age 7 to 1 4 years) as related to changes in hue. The
colours tested were red, blue, yellow and black. The lowest visibility thresh-
olds were obtained with black, followed by red with blue the highest. Byrnes
colour theories (1847) suggest that the use of primary colours and black is
said to provide maximum differentiation. In diagrams, the least used colour
is black and it is carefully avoided for large solid elements.
Apart from the use of colours in diagrams and illustrations, a trend observedis the use of colour for navigation and coding of chapters in textbooks for
children. Another familiar use is to illuminate and highlight information.
Tufte (1990) provides a strategy to use colours found in nature, especially
the lighter ones, as these colours are familiar and coherent and possess a
widely accepted harmony to the human eye.
The theories disccussed in this section are important considerat ions for
the design of textbooks and are incorporated into the models discussed in
section 2.1, leading to a framework for the analysis of childrens science text-
books, described in the next section.
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2.3 AFRAMEWORKFOR ANALYSINGTHE DESIGNOF CHILDREN SSCIENCETEXTBOOKS
In order to compare the design of science textbooks for children, several
layers of information including physical features, modes of production,
diagrams, layout and design features and other qualitative and quantitative
characteristics need to be observed and analysed. A framework9is required
that can lead to usable answers concerning the form and functions of a
textbook.
The main organising principle of this framework is based on Gilliesons
(2008) micro, macro and meta-level features of books. Each of these levels
has been defined in the following sections depending on their function in
this framework. The design features within each of these levels are in turn
analysed within the three modes of textual, graphic and spatial [Table 6],
adapted from Kostelnick and Roberts matrix. (1998).
For childrens science textbooks, while the textual mode is active at the
micro level, the macro level looks more into the spatial and graphic modes
of the textbook. Hence, the various cells of the framework may or may not
be active depending upon the aim of the analysis and the complexity of the
textbook being analysed.
Textual Graphic Spatial
Micro
Macro
Meta
Table 6.Framework for analysing childrens science textbooks
2.3.1 Micro-level features
This level includes features that are the building blocks of the page layout.
It mostly concentrates on details within typography. The use of graphic
elements such as rules, bullets, borders and boxes is also analysed at the
micro-level. [Table 7]10
9 Framework refers to Gilliesons description as explained in section 2.1.310 In table 7, Object attributes has been borrowed from Moys (2012: 30). It is defined as the
presentation of graphic elements.
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Hierarchy and headings
Described in section 2.2.2 (B).Considers the various levels of headingsand the use of numbers or letters toprovide order of information.
Emphasis and highlightingIdentifies typographic cues used tohighlight information.
Alignment and treatmentof text
Considers justification, indentation,paragraphs, and the use of treatmentslike drop caps.
Object attributesIdentifies graphic elements like bullets,listing devices, borders, rules and linework used in the layout.
Table 7.Micro-level features explained
2.3.2 Macro-level features
Macro-level features are analysed in the graphic and the spatial modes.
While the graphic mode deals with illustrations, diagrams and data displays,
the spatial mode identifies and analyses the spatial organisation of various
elements of the layout. [Table8]
Rhetorical clusters andlayout elements
Similar to Gilliesons macro-level feature (2008:185). Identifies the various semantic groups ina page layout.
Pictorial formatDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Considers thekind of pictures used in a textbook photographs, line drawings, illustrations .
Placement of picturesDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Refers to theplacement of pictures with relation to the textin a page layout.
Labelling and captionsDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Refers to thedesign and placement of labels and captions ina picture.
Pull-outs and tablesDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Identifies textpulled out from the main text into boxes. Alsoconsiders text organised into tables.
Gestalt forms and unitySimilar to Gilliesons macro-level feature(2008: 170). Studies the unity of the spread asdescribed in 2.1.1 (C).
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Layout and spatialorganisation
Described in section 2.2.2 (C). Considers thespacing and the placement of elements in thepage layout and the margins.
Table 8.Macro-level features explained
2.3.3 Meta-level features
This level is concerned with analysing features that contribute to the look of
the overall textbook. It considers the textbook as a whole. The meta-level is
most active in the spatial mode of the framework. Features like the physical
properties of the book, the underlying grid, the system of contents in a chap-
ter, the navigation through the various chapters and the overall use of colour
for the book are studied at the meta-level. [Table 9]11
Physicalityattributes
Similar to Gilliesons meta-level feature calledArtefact structure (2008: 195). Includes size of book,binding, paper stock, cover and number of pages.
GridsSimilar to Gilliesons meta-level feature (2008: 213).Identifies the underlying grids and template forthe book.
NavigationConsiders the navigation through the various chap-ters of the book. This includes analysing folios,running headers, contents list and chapter o peners.
Chapter overview Describes the extent of the chapter.
ColourDescribes the system behind the use of colour inthe book.
Table 9. Meta-level features explained
The framework explained in this section is adapted from models and theo-
ries discussed in sections 2.1 and 2.2. The various features described in this
framework are analysed and documented in chapter 4.
11 In Table 9, Physicality attributes has been borrowed from Moys (2012: 30). It is defined as themateriality of the medium.
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3. METHODOLOGY
To compare the design features of science textbooks for children in India
and the UK, it was important to choose samples of textbooks to analyse. This
involved studying the education system and curriculum in both the coun-
tries and choosing specimens that represent the kind of textbooks currently
being used in the schools of these countries. Three factors were considered
while choosing these samples Subject, Age group and Publisher.
3.1 EDUCATIONSYSTEMIN THE UK AND INDIA
The national curriculum in the UK contains programmes of study and
attainment targets for subjects and is followed by all state schools in the UK.
This curriculum is organised into blocks of years called key stages that chil-
dren are taken through in their school life [Table 10]. At the end of every key
stage, the teacher formally assesses each childs performance to measure the
progress. Primary education starts in year 1 at age 4 and most pupils begin
their secondary education at the age of 2 in the 7 thyear.
Key Stage 1 Ages 57 Years 1 and 2
Key Stage 2 Ages 711 Years 3, 4, 5 and 6
Key Stage 3 Ages 1114 Years 7, 8 and 9
Key Stage 4 Ages 1416 Years 10 and 11
Table 10.Key stages in the UK curriculum
In India there are several boards of education. The two main boards
include the central board, which is controlled by the central government,
and the state boards that are under the governments of each state. Every
school follows a particular curriculum based on either of the boards. Thelevels of education include pre-school, primary, secondary, higher secondary.
The first 10 years of schooling is divided into 5 years of primary education, 3
years of secondary, followed by 2 years of high school.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the
apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India. This
constitutes what is commonly known as the central board in the country.
Similarly, every state has its own board of education as well. There is a range
of textbooks published by Indian publishers. However, the textbooks used by
the central board schools all across the country are uniform and same is the
case with state board textbooks within every state.
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Schools in UK use a number of different textbooks and workbooks published
by independent publishers such as Letts, CGP, Macmillan, Collins,
Cambridge and Oxford University Press. Though the list of topics covered (as
per the contents page) remains similar across these books, it is interesting to
note that every school makes its own choice and students use books from a
range of different publishers.
3.2 SAMPLESOF TEXTBOOKS FOR ANALYSIS
From the various textbooks published in both countries, two have been
chosen from each as samples for this study. The choice of the subject, age
group and the publishers was made after taking the following points into
consideration.
On analysing a range of textbooks across various subjects for children, it
was noted how prominently a science textbook differs from a mathematics
and an English language one. The degree of picture-text complexity, use of
numerals, equations, continuous text, diagrams, illustrations, are some of
the features that tend to differ with the subject. Childrens science textbooks
possess a considerable amount of picture-text integration and make use of it
to explain several complex relationships. Hochuli discusses scientific books
in terms of how they challenge the designer:
They demand that the designer use all his or her powers if all the
material is to be brought together under one roof: the main text
(with tables and formulae), organised by a complicated hierarchy of
headings, together with different kinds of material as illustrations -
drawings, photographs (black-and white and colour), maps, diagrams
- and related captions If one also has foot- or side-notes, appendixes
(perhaps illustrated as well), and finally a commentary section and
one or more indexes, then the planning cannot be careful enough.
(1996: 70)
In addition to the subject, it was also important to consider the age groups.
Legibility, readability and understanding of the visual form largely differ
with age. Tinker (1965: 150) who has performed several studies on percep-
tion of reading and legibility amongst adults and children states that
mechanics of reading, which includes word recognition techniques, percep-
tual skill, use of context, becomes well established, or like that of adults,
somewhere between the fourth and eighth grades. Children in the primary
years only begin to recognise letters, words and read. The design features
of textbooks for younger children are different from the kind of design
decisions that are taken while designing for older children. Key stage 3that
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includes the age group of 1114 years has been chosen for this study. These
are developmental years where children have developed their skills of read-
ing and writing and are moving towards developing a perception like adults.
Science textbooks from both the countries for this age group possess the
required amount of picture-text integration for study and analysis.
Two publishers of science textbooks for this age group have been chosen
from each country. For Indian textbooks, one publisher has been chosen
from the central board syllabus while the other is from the state board.
Content of both the books were then matched with the list of contents of the
various textbooks available for key stage 3 in the UK. Additionally, parents
and teachers were informally questioned to identify the textbooks that are
most commonly used in schools in the UK. Based on this, science study
guides from CGP and Letts were chosen. While Key stage 3 is included in
a single book in the UK, every grade in India has a new textbook, which
results in three seperate books for the grades 6-8. Thus, following four titles
have been analysed:
1. Letts Science complete coursebook, KS3(UK)
2. CGP Science complete study and practice, KS3(UK)
3. NCERT Science 6,7 & 8 (India)
4. Ratna Sagars Living Science, 6, 7 & 8 (India)
3.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The final framework that has been used for analysing these chosen samples
has been described in section 2.3 and is a compilation of relevant models
required to analyse childrens science textbooks. This framework has been
used to perform analysis under the three levels micro, macro and meta
(Gillieson, 2008). The analysis is presented in chapter 4. A description of
the various features of each of the four samples of textbooks is documented
in tables presented in the appendices 5, 6 and 7.
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4. ANALYSIS
This chapter documents the analysis of the chosen samples of childrens
science textbooks using the framework described in section 2.3. The books
are analysed by studying the features under the three levels of the frame-
work (Adapted from Gillieson, 2008) micro, macro and meta. Each of
these books is referred to by their names, Living Science, NCERT, Lettsand
CGP.[Figure 3]
The analysis begins at the meta-level with a description of the textbooks
describing design features like grids, navigation, physicality attributes a nd
the use of colour. The macro-level analyses the spatial arrangement of vari-
ous elements in a page layout including pictures and pull-out boxes. Details
within text and typographic differentiation are analysed at the micro-level. At
each level observations and conclusions are discussed and the descriptions
of the various features are documented in the form of tables presented in
the appendix.
4.1 META-LEVEL
A study of the physicality attributes12[Appendix 5] of these textbooks shows
that they are quite similar as far as the format and the number of pages
is considered. All four have soft-back covers and are perfect bound. The
features that differ are the paper stock and the quality of printing. The two
books from the UK, Lettsand CGPuse thicker stock of paper with a better
quality of printing as compared to the samples of textbooks from India.
There are several factors that lead to the choice of paper for a textbook. Avail-
ability, cost, thickness, opacity, surface finish and its compatibility with the
kind of printing are some of these factors. Out of the three, NCERTuses a
thin (80gsm) paper stock with a poor quality of print. The various elementslike colour, boxes, and rules are not well aligned in print. In addition to this,
the paper stock used for the cover of NCERTis not strong enough to hold
the book together.
The next feature observed at this level is the underlying grids for these
textbooks. Each of these samples follows a simple grid system. NCERTand
Living Science[Figures 5 & 4 respectively]both use a two-column grid for
the layout of elements. In Letts [Figure 6], text and images are arranged in
12 As explained in section 2.3, this term has been adapted from Moys (2012)
Figure 3Scale 35%The four textbooks analysed in this dissertation.Details and 90% scale spreads to be found in the appendix.
Living Science (India)
Letts (India) CGP (India)
NCERT (India)
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Figure 4: Living Science35 % scale
Figure 6: Letts35 % scale
Figure 7: CGP35 % scale
Figure 5: NCERT35 % scale
CHAPTEROPENINGSPREADSFOR META-LEVELANALYSISAnalysing the grid, navigation system and use of colour
(Spreads at 90% scale in appendices)
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a single column placed closer to the inner margins. Text pulled out into
boxes is placed on the outer margins. In CGP [ Figure 7],text and images are
framed with a keyline on every page. It is this frame along with a header that
are constant on every page. Within this frame a column grid does not seem
to be used. Text is placed within the frame with images inserted into it. This
study of the underlying grids helps in analysing the spatial arrangement of
various elements within the layout at the macro-level.
To study the extent of a chapter within each book, the chapter on human
systems including the digestive system has been chosen across all four
books. In the two textbooks from India, Living Science [ Figure 20]and
NCERT [ Figure 21], the various human systems are handled as separate
chapters. The chapter considered here is the one on Nutrition in animals.
In Letts [ Figure 22]and CGP [ Figure 23], The chapter is called Human
systems and includes several other systems apart from digestion. Further
analysis at the macro and micro levels is carried out taking spreads from
these chapters as examples.
Hartley (1994) emphasises that the overall layout of instructional text should
be such that the reader can easily locate information. Chapter openers,
running headers and folios all contribute to the navigation between chapters
in a textbook. At the meta-level a comparison between the chapter openers
of these four textbooks provides an example of the kind of elements used
to develop the navigation within each of these books. Out of the four chap-
ter opening spreads [Figures 4, 5, 6, 7], the effect of the spread is most in
Letts [Figure 6]and is least prominent in CGP [Figure 7]. There are several
elements that contribute to a prominent chapter opener in Letts. The pres-
ence of the strong colour band on the top of the page that matches the
colour used for the rest of the chapter captures the students attention while
looking for a particular chapter. In addition to this, it can be observed that
Lettshas a follows a system of use of colour in which every chapter uses a
different colour. Thus the beginning of a new chapter becomes more evident
[Figure 8].Whereas the other three textbooks use a set of colours through-out the book, not highlighting the beginning of a new chapter. Letts, Living
Scienceand NCERT[Figues 8, 9 & 10 respectively], all three make use of a
large numeral to depict the chapter number. In CGP, due to the small size
of type and its placement, the name and number of the chapter tends to get
lost in the layout[Figure 11].
Figure 8: Letts50 % scaleElements that contribute to aprominent chapter opener.
The other two colours used forchapter openers. Highlightsthe beginning of a new chapter
more prominently.
A strong head band for thechapter name and number
Large numeral forchapter number
Prominent folios
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Figure 12: Living ScienceChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the beginning of the chapter
Figure 13: NCERTChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the end of the chapter
Figure 14: LettsChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the beginning of the chapter
Figure 15: CGPChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the end of the chapter
Figure 9: Living Science
Figure 10: NCERT
Figure 11: CGP
Figures 9, 10, 11Scale 80%Treatment of the chapter numberand name in the openieng spread
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Figure 16: Living Science
Figure 17: NCERT
Figure: 18. Letts
Figure: 19. CGP
According to Waller (1982), running headings can be used to summarise the
contents on a page and remind the reader about the information present on
that particular page. The centred placement of the running header and the
folios at the bottom of the page in Living Science [Figure 16]is not very effec-
tive in the navigation of the textbook as they dont stand out prominently. In
NCERT [Figure 17], the running headers are present at the bottom towards
the inner margin and tend to get lost. In contrast, in Letts [Figure 18], the use
of colour and a graphic element, along with being placed at the bottom in
the outer margin, makes the folios very prominent and in turn help to locate
the required page more easily.
Waller (1982) describes contents list as a typographically structured device
that helps in making the content of a book more accessible. Some obser-
vations are made on comparing the contents pages of the four textbooks
[Figures 20, 21, 22, 23]. In Letts [Figure 22], the chapter numbers and namesuse the same system of colour as used in the chapters itself. This helps
in looking for a particular chapter in the list. In Living Science [Figure 20]
each chapter within the contents list also lists the various topics covered
within the chapter. This increases the amount of text and thus demands for
better hierarchy amongst the list. Hochuli (1989) emphasis on a motto for
the design of contents pages: as clear as needed, as restful as possible. The
contents pages of CGP [Figure 23]and NCERT [Figure 21]are examples of
lack of emphasis and hierarchy. These lack the effective use of typographic
differentiation. Also the visual connect between the designs of the contents
page to the rest of the books is not well developed.
Another similarity that can be observed across the four samples of textbooks
is the presence of initial overviews and the end of chapter summaries, along
with some important keywords and practice questions which are placed at
the end of a chapter [Figures 12, 13, 14, 15]. These are common methods of
highlighting important information in textbooks. Pull-out boxes also fall
under this category and are discussed in section 4.2. Reder and Ander-
son (1980) have demonstrated that a text stripped out of the main text is
better remembered than a continuous, detailed text. Thus, this observation
supports the likelihood that the main points of a text are better remembered
when learnt from a summary than from the main text.
LeftFigures 16, 17, 18, 19The treatment of running headers andfolios across all four textbooks.
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DETAILSFROMTHE CONTENTS PAGES(AT80% SCALE)Points to the chapter chosen for this analysis.
(Complete contents pages in appendices)
Figure 20: Living ScienceSub-topics described within each chapter.
Figure 21: NCERTLack of hierarchy and differentiation.
Figure 22: LettsEffective hierarchy and functional use of colour.
Figure 23: CGPInadequate hierarchy amongst topics
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SELECTED SPREADSFOR MACRO-LEVELANALYSISAnalysing arrangement of elements in layout
(Spreads at 90% scale in appendices)
Figure 24: Living Science35 % scale
Figure 25: NCERT35 % scale
Figure 26: Letts35 % scale
Figure 27: CGP35 % scale
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4.2 MACRO-LEVEL
Macro-level features together provide a description of the overall layout of
the four textbooks and the relationship between the elements in each of
them. The first observation at this level is to identify the rhetorical clusters
in the selected spread from each textbook. [Figures 24, 25, 26, 27]. The find-
ings are documented in Table 11.
Living Science
2 levels of headings1 body text4 illustrations with captions1 pull-out box with text
NCERT
2 levels of headings1 body text
2 illustrations with captions1 table with text2 pull-out boxes with text1 speech bubble with text
Letts
2 levels of headings1 body text2 illustrations with captions1 photograph with caption1 table with text5 pull-out boxes with text
CGP
2 levels of headingsBody text in points2 illustrations with descriptive labels2 pull-out boxes with text
Table 11.Rhetorical clusters identofied within the four spreads [Figure].
These rhetorical clusters highlight the ratio of text to image used by each of
these books to explain the same topic. Each of the spreads includes main
text, pictures and secondary text in different proportions. Living Science
[Figure 24]and NCERT [Figure 25]have text heavy layouts as comparedto the other two. CGP [Figure 27]has the least amount of text and the text
is presented as points rather than continuous prose. Letts [Figure 26]has
a considerable amount of text that is balanced by the number and size of
images. Thus each of these textbooks make use of different ratio of text and
image to explain similar topics.
As discussed in 2.2.1, studying is a selective reading process. A range of
reading styles and strategies as listed by Pugh (1975) and Thomas (1975) are
used for the purpose of studying. Thus instructional texts such as textbooks
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Figure 28: Living Science35 % scaleExample of ineffective size of picture Figure 29: CGP
35 % scaleExample of picture getting lost in the layoutdue to the reduced size
Figure 30: NCERT100% scaleExample of inappropriate labelling as the labelsare getting lost in the diagram.
need to be made more accessible for a range of different purposes and a
wider category of audience (Waller, 1987). Peterson (2014) emphasises that
the experience of layout is that of an interconnected system where each part
exists in relation to the whole. Thus it becomes essential to study the various
parts of the layout in the spreads from these textbooks. Pictures, pull-out
boxes and tables are analysed at this stage while the details within text are
analysed at the micro-level.
According to Brody (1982) the selection of an appropriate pictorial format is
an important consideration while inserting pictures into instructional text.
He elaborates that no single pictorial format is suitable for all purposes. The
use of a mixture of pictorial formats also offers a variety to the student and
breaks the monotony of the textbook. This can be observed in the efficient
use of illustrations and photographs in Letts. In this particular spread [Figure
26], while the various organs of the digestive system are explained using a
labelled illustration, a photograph is used to show the many villi present in
the small intestine and a 3D illustration clearly explains the pushing of food
down the oesophagus.
In addition to the choice of pictorial format, the size of the picture also
affects its impact. Brody (1982) states that the size of a picture shall be
chosen in a way that it can be discriminated and identified by the audience
and at the same time contributes to the attractiveness of the layout. Some-
times pictures are reduced in size in order to fit into the grid. For example
in Figure 28from Living Scienceand Figure 29from CGP. However, at such
sizes these pictures are not successful in serving their purpose and dont
communicate the information effectively.
As discussed in section 2.2.2 (C), The effectiveness of a picture in instruc-
tional text lies in the ability to direct student attention to it at the most
appropriate moment for learning. According to Brody (1982), the relevant
placement of pictures within the narrative can help in directing attention.
In Living Science [Figure 24]and NCERT [Figure 25], the pictures are placedwithin a two-column grid into their corresponding topics. However, while
in Living Sciencethe pictures are placed neatly into the two-column grid and
care is taken not to disturb the flow of the narrative, in NCERT [Figure 25]
pictures are often placed in a way that it leads to odd breakage in sentences
and paragraphs. This affects the continuity in the text. Continuity is one
of the five principles of visual perception by Gestalt. It emphasises how
smoother transitions, such that the eye is compelled to move from one
object to another, are preferred over disrupted ones.
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Figure 31: Letts100% scaleExample of the treatmentof captions. The caption isdescriptive, placed abovethe picture and centred. Useof bold leads to the captionappearing like a heading in thelayout.
Figure 32: NCERTHuman digestive system illustration80% scale
Figures 32 & 33Design of labels and captionsCaption consists of the figure number along with the name
Figure 33: Living ScienceHuman digestive system illustration80% scale
Both Hartley (1994) and Brody (1982) emphasise on referring to pictures
within text as a good way of directing attention. This feature is observed in
NCERT [Figure 25]and Living Science [Figure 24], making pictures promi-
nent at the right moment in the narrative. In Letts [Figure 26], the pictures
are placed into the text after they have already been introduced and talked
about. But these are not referred to within the text. In such a case the place-
ment of these pictures exactly where they need to be seen becomes very
crucial. In CGP [Figure 27], neither does the student find a reference to the
picture in the text nor are the pictures placed in a way to support the narra-
tive. Thus