THE EMPIRICAL BASES OF PUBLIC OPINION: Is The Public Politically Tolerant?

Mark PeffleyPS 473 Public Opinion

Political tolerance: Theoretical concerns

Political tolerance defined: a willingness to allow the expression of ideas and interests one opposes

Political tolerance in democratic theories: What "solutions" to intolerance do these

theories prescribe? What predictions do these theories make

about levels and sources of political tolerance among masses and elites that we can "test" with the available survey data?

Political tolerance: Survey EvidenceOutline

Mass support for general principles of civil liberties ("I believe in free speech/letting anyone run for office/giving a

speech, no matter what their views are“) versus applying them to unpopular groups

Samuel Stouffer, 1954 survey Political repression in the American states, 1954 John Sullivan et al, least-liked measure Political tolerance in comparative perspective Individual sources of political intolerance

Political Tolerance of Elites & Masses toward Various Targets, Stouffer, 1954

Percentage Tolerant Tolerance toward admitted communist Elites Mass Public Speech (allowed to make speech in your community?) 51% 29% Book in Library (not remove book from library?) 42 28 Teach in college (not fired from teaching in college?) 11 6% Tolerance toward suspected communist (swears not comm) Speech 66% 39% Book in library 88 71 Teach in college 81 69 Tolerance toward atheist (man is angst all churches & relig)* Speech 64% 37% Book in library 64% 35% Teach in college 25 12 Admitted Communist:

SUPPOSE HE IS A CLERK IN A STORE. SHOULD HE BE FIRED OR NOT? 27% SUPPOSE HE IS A RADIO SINGER. SHOULD HE BE FIRED OR NOT? 31

SHOULD AN ADMITTED COMMUNIST BE PUT IN JAIL, OR NOT? 40 SHOULD HE HAVE HIS AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP TAKEN AWAY? (No) 15%

General Principle: I believe in [free speech for everyone/letting anyone run for office/give a speech] no matter what their views are.

Elites Mass Public90% 80%

Increasing political tolerance over time?

1954 (Stouffer) 1973 (Nunn, et al)

Tolerance toward admitted communist

27% 53%

Tolerance toward atheists

37% 62%

Tolerance toward socialists

58% 72%

Who is more politically tolerant over time? Liberals?

Who is more politically tolerant over time toward groups on the right as well as the left? Conservatives tolerate groups on the right and liberals tolerate groups on the left.

Are we really measuring political “tolerance” if some people dislike the group much more than others?

The Least-Liked Measure: 1) Selecting the Least-Liked Group

2) Levels of Political Intolerance, U.S. (2005)

James Gibson,

Political repression in the American states, 1954, Whodunit?

Political repression in the American states, 1954, Gibson

Gibson used Stouffer’s 1954 surveys of political tolerance toward American Communists among masses and elites to see whether mass or elite tolerance levels in the states are better predictors of levels of state repression of American Communists.

Political Repression of American Communists by State Govt, 1954

Mass and Elite Political Tolerance Scores by State, 1954

Whodunnit?, 1954

Relationship between state opinion and state policy

To what degree is repression of Communists in the Amer. states due to pol. tolerance of masses vs. elites, when we control for tolerance of the other group?

State Mass

Tolerance

StateElite Tolerance

StateRepression.52

-.08

-.35

-.25

-.42

Political repression in the American states, 1954

How does the evidence square with our democratic theories?

1. Stouffer’s original studya. Both masses & elites intolerant toward easy targets (admitted

Comm.), but masses more so.b. Elites much less intolerant toward “hard” targets (suspected

Comm.) than masses.2. Gibson’s study of state repression using Stouffer survey

data and state repression against Communists a. State repression associated with both mass & elite intoleranceb. But, when we control for mass intolerance, elite intolerance is

more predictive of state repression.

Political Tolerance in Comparative Perspective

John Sullivan, et al, 1993; Peffley and Rohrschneider , 2003.

Democratization and Political Tolerance toward Least-liked Group in Seventeen Countries

Peffley & Rohrschneider

Least-liked Groups Selected in 17 Nations

What characteristics of countries influence levels of mass political tolerance?

What characteristics of countries influence levels of mass political tolerance?

Democratic longevity: political tolerance is higher in more stable democracies that have persisted over time (political learning)

Federalism: citizens in federal systems are more tolerant than citizens in unitary systems (lessons of compromise)

Targeted militarized disputes: political tolerance declines when states are targeted in a militarized dispute (bunker mentality)

Sullivan, et al. 1993. “Why Politicians are

More Tolerant…”

Why Politicians are More Tolerant?

Selective recruitmentAdult political socialization

What democratic theory does this study support and why?

Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses:What makes some people more tolerant than others?

Social Individual PoliticalEnvironment Characteristics Tolerance(Education, etc.) (Personality, etc.) (Least-liked)

Situational Triggers

(Threats of violence,News coverage, etc.)

Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses:What makes some people more tolerant than others?

Individual Sources of Political Intolerance among Masses

Two Characteristics Associated with Intolerance Personality characteristics: Dogmatism (closed-mindedness)

(Rokeach, 1973) There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against it .

To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. A group which tolerates too many differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. Of all the different philosophies that exist in the world there is probably only one that is correct .

Social conservatism: Social Conformity vs Autonomy (Feldman, 2003)Conformity Versus Autonomy A. We should admire people who go their own way without worrying about what others think. B. People need to learn to fit in and get along with others.Socialization and Child-Rearing Values A. The most important values children should learn are obedience and respect for authority. B. The most important values children should learn are independence and self-reliance.Freedom Versus Fear of Disorder A. It is most important to give people all the freedom they need to express themselves. B. Our society will break down if we allow people to do or say anything they want. Note: Respondents were asked whether they strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the above statements.

Survey items were administered randomly.

What are the implications for theories of democracy?

Classical Theory: Formal education has an indirect effect through

personality (authoritarianism) and social conservatism Conventional political activity (e.g., voting) has little

effect; partisan activities can lead to less tolerance. Theory as a “reconstructive ideal”?

Elitist Theory Personality has an effect (hard to change) Elites are more tolerant than masses

What is the better safeguard against repression? Elites? Mass education?

Election notes:Obama’s Appalachian challenge