Methods of Research

transcript

Virgilio C. Boado, MA Ed. M

School Principal IV

PEQNHS

1.1. Definition, Purpose, characteristics,

differences, kinds and classification of Research

Qualities of Good Research

Qualities of Good Researcher

Hindrances of scientific Inquiry,

Major needs and problems/demands of Research

Values of Research to Man

Types of Research

Classification of Research,

The variable

Components of Research Process,

1.2. Qualities of Good Research

Instrument

Validity, Types of validity, reliability,

methods in testing the reliability of research instrument,

usability

determining factors of usability of research

The Research Problems, characteristics of

a Research Problem, Sources of Research

Problem

The Research Objectives,

Statement of the Problem/Objectives,

Hypothesis, Theoretical and Conceptual

Framework, Assumptions,

Significance of the Study, Scope

and Delimitation of the Study

3.1.Importance of Related Literature and

Studies

3.2, Purpose and Functions of related

studies,

3.3 Characteristics,

3.4. Sources and Where to locate the

sources,

3.5 Related Legal Bases, Related

Literature, Related Studies( Local, Foreign)

3.6. Definition of Terms: Conceptual and

Operational

4.1.Historical Design:

Uses of historical

research, major steps of historical d

esigns, sources of historical

research

4.2.Descriptive Design: Meaning,

characteristic, value, importance an

advantages, techniques, Types of Des

criptive Research : Descriptive-

Survey, Descriptive-

normative survey, Descriptive-status,

Descriptive

analysis, Descriptive classification,

descriptive-evaluative, descriptive-

comparative, correlational survey, lo

ngitudinal survey

4.3. Experimental Design: Meani

ng, concepts of causation,

distinguishing features,

experimental designs, experimen

tal plan,

Types of Experimental Designs: Si

ngle-group design, Two-

group design, two-pair group

design, parallel group design, co

unterbalanced

or latin square design, complete

randomized

design, randomized complete blo

ck design,

correlational Design, Pre-

test and Post test

design, case study design, Case

work, Content Analysis

5.1. Definition,

Purpose, Terminologies, Principles, advantages and Disadvantages of

Sampling,

Planning a Sample

Survey,

5.2. Determination of

Sample Size

5.3. Sampling Design:

(A) Scientific Sampling:

Restricted random sampling, unrestricted

random sampling,

stratified random sampling, systematic

sampling, multistage sampling,

cluster sampling

(B) Nonscientific sampling:

Purposive Sampling, Incidental sampling,

Quota sampling

6.1. Classification of Data According to

Source, Selecting method of collecting Data,

Research Instruments or

6.2. The Questionnaire: Definition,

Advantages and Disadvantages,

Construction of Questionnaire,

Types of Questions, Guidelines in

Formulation, Problems in

responses, evidence of misleading

questions, the cover letter,

evaluating the questionnaire,

sample questionnaires

6.3. The Interview: Purpose

and uses of interview,

advantages and

disadvantages, types of

classes of

interviews, interview as

instruments, steps/

pointers, what

to avoid in interview

7.1. Data Processing: Definition

7.2. Data Matrix: Types of matrices

(Univariate matrix, bivariate,

multivariate)

7.3. Dummy tables

8.1. Univariate Statistical

Treatment, Bivariate Statistical Treatment,

Multivariate Statistical

Treatment

8.2. Frequency Distribution and

Graphical Representation

8.3. Descriptive Statistics:

Measures of

Central Tendency, Measures of

Variability, Normal

Distribution of Standard,

Measures of Relative

Variability,

Measures of Kurtosis,

Measures of Skewness

8.4. Inferential Statistics:

Correlation,

Chi-square, z test means, t-test,

f- test, Kruskal-Wallis One-way

Analysis of variance

by ranks,

Friedman Two-way analysis of variance by ranks

9.1. Data Analysis: Types ofData

Analysis (Univariate

Analysis, Bivariate Analysis,

Multivariate Analysis, Normative Analysis, Status Analysis, Descriptive Analysis, Classification Analysis, Evaluative Analysis, Comparative Analysis)

9.2. Presentation of Data:

Textual presentation, tabular presentation,

Graphical Presentation,

Purpose of Graphing, Advantages and

Limitations of Graphs,

Types of graphs, construction of

Individual Graphs

9.3. Group Derive Generalization

10.1. Summary of Findings

10.2. Conclusion and Some dangers to

avoid in drawing up conclusions

10.3. Recommendations

11.1. Writing Requirements

11.2. Content and Structure of Thesis Proposal:

The Problem: Rationale and Background, Review of

Related Literature, Methodology,Materials and methods,

results and discussion, summary, conclusion and

recommendations, Schedule of Activities,

Bibliography, Curriculum Vitae

11.3. Form and Styles of a Research

Paper, Thesis and Dissertations

Validity

- It means the degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.

Types of Validity

Content validity – It means the extent to which the content or topics of the test is truly representative of the content of the course.

Concurrent validity – It is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable measure.

Predictive validity – It is determined by showing how well predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent time.

Construct validity – It is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.

Reliability

- It means the extent to which a research instrument is dependable,

consistent and stable.

Methods in Testing the Reliability of a Good Research Instrument

· Test-retest method – In this method, the same instrument is administered

twice to the same group of subjects and the correlation coefficient is

determined.

rs = 1 – Z6D2

Parallel-forms method – Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be

administered of the group of subjects, and the paired observations correlated

· Split-half method – The test in this method may be administered twice,

but the test items are divided into two values.

rwt = Z(rt)

1 + rnt

· Internal-consistency method – This method is used with psychological

test which consist of dichotomously scored items.

Kuder-Richardson Formula

Rxx = [N] [SD2 - ∑piqi]

N-1 SD2

Usability

- It means the degree to which the research instrument be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without expenditures of time, money and effect.

Factors to Determine Usability

1. Base of administration. To facilitate the administration of a research instrument, instruction should be complete and precise.

2. Base of scoring. It depends on the following aspects:

· Construction of a test in the objective type.

· Answer keys are adequately prepared.

· Scoring directions are fully understood.

3. Ease of interpretation and application. Results of test are easy to interpret and apply if tables are provided.

4. Low cost. It is more practical if the test is low cost material-wise.

5. Proper mechanical make-up. A good research instrument should be printed clearly in an appropriate size for the grade or year level for which the instrument is intended.

Research problem and research objectives

have the same characteristics but they differ

in form because the former is stated in

interrogative or question form and the latter,

in declarative form.

Hypothesis – is defined as a wise guess that is

formulated and temporarily adopted to

explain the observed facts covered by the

study.

Types of Hypothesis

· Null Hypothesis – is a denial of an

existence of a trait, characteristic, quality,

value, correlation or difference of the result.

· Alternative Hypothesis – is an

affirmation of the existence of the observed

phenomenon.

- shapes the justification of the

research problem/research objectives in

order to provide the legal basis for defining

its parameters

- presents specific and well-defined

concepts which are called constructs.

are presumed to be true statements of

facts related to the research problem.

- Is presented comprehensively to

convince the screening committee the

importance of the study.

- This includes the coverage of the

study area, the subjects, the research

apparatus, equipment or instrument, the

research issues and concerns, the duration of

the study, and the constraints that have

direct bearing on the result of the study.

1. Conceptual Definition – The definition

are based on concepts or hypothetic ones

which are usually taken from a dictionary,

encyclopedia and published journals.

2. Operational Definition – The definition

of terms are based on observable

characteristics and how it is used in the

study.

This includes the coverage of the study

area, the subjects, the research apparatus,

equipment or instrument, the research issues

and concerns, the duration of the study, and

the constraints that have direct bearing on

the result of the study.

Lesson 3

Related literature is composed of

discussions of facts and principles to

which the present study is related.

The materials are usually printed and

found in books, encyclopedias,

professional journals, magazines,

newspapers, and other publications.

Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the

researcher in the following ways:

Help or guide the researcher in searching for or

selecting a better research problem or topic.

Help the investigator understand his topic for

research better.

Ensure that there will be no duplication of other

studies.

Help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.

Help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in

a. The formulation of specific questions to be researched on;

b. The formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;

c. The formulation of conceptual framework;

d. The selection and application of the methods of research;

e. The selection and application of sampling technique;

f. The selection and/ or preparation and validation of research instruments for gathering data;

g. The selection and application of

statistical procedures;

h. The analysis, organization,

presentation, and interpretation of data;

i. The making of the summary of

findings, conclusions, and recommendations;

Help and guide the researcher in making

comparison between his findings with the

findings of other researchers on similar

studies with the end in view of formulating

generalizations or principles which are the

contributions of the study to the fund of

knowledge.

The surveyed materials must be as recent as

possible

Exceptions:

A. Treatises that deal on universals or

things of more or less permanent nature may

still be good today.

B. When a comparison or contrast is to

be made between the conditions of today

and those of a remote past, say ten or

twenty years ago.

Materials reviewed must be

objective and unbiased.

Materials surveyed must be relevant

to the study.

Surveyed materials must have been

based upon genuinely original and

true facts or data to make valid and

reliable.

Reviewed materials must not be too

few or too many.

Literature reviewed typically

includes scholarly journals, scholarly

books, authoritative databases and

primary sources. Sometimes it

includes newspapers, magazines,

other books, films, and audio and

video tapes, and other secondary

sources.

are the origin

of information under study,

fundamental documents relating to

a particular subject or idea. Often

they are first hand accounts written

by a witness or researcher at the

time of an event or discovery.

E.g. published books, magazines,

encyclopedias, almanacs and etc.

documents or recordings that

relate to or discuss information

originally presented elsewhere.

E.g. Information from the

internet, unpublished thesis and

dissertations

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following places:

Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.

Government and private offices.

The National Library.

The library of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports.

The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished master’s thesis and doctoral dissertations.

Related – means the legal bases, literature and studies which have direct bearing or relation to the present study.

It determine the relevance of the study to the government’s thrusts. The major sources of related legal bases are laws and department directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda, and others which are related to the present study.

Example:

Republic Act No. 7164 known as the “Philippine Nursing Act of 1991” defines professional nursing as the performance for a fee, salary, or other reward or compensation… toward the promotion of health, and alleviation of suffering through utilization of nursing process. (LEGAL BASIS).

The foregoing professional nursing definition explicitly expressed that nurses practice their profession for a fee or salary commensurate with their work in order to satisfy their needs and wants to cope with the fast changing world. In other words, the performance of a particular job affects nurses’ values especially if nurses meet the problems related to their job in the hospital, hence, promotion of health services cannot be attained. (EXPLANATION OF THE LEGAL BASIS)

It is a section in a research paper, thesis

dissertation, and research project in which

the sources are taken from books, journals,

magazines, novels, poetry, etc that contains

facts, laws, theories and other documented

observations. This is in a chronological order

from recent to past when presented. It is

unscientific if related literature are

presented and of no explanation at the

relevance to the present study.

Example:

Murray’s (1998) article on nurse executives’ leadership roles stated that chief nursing officers (CNO) leave their position due to lack of power conflict with chief executive officer (CEO), and inadequate nursing personnel. [Related literature by Bruce P. Murray. 1998. “Nurse Executives’ Leadership Roles.” Journal of Nursing Administration. 28(6):48. (June 1998)].

The article of Murray has bearing to the present study because staff nurses’ performance would be affected if the middle managers or chief nursing officers have conflict with the chief executive officer or top manager and with problems met related to their job, for instance, inadequate nursing personnel. (EXPLANATION OF THE RELATED LITERATURE)

Published and unpublished research

studies are sources of materials that

are included in this section. The

research studies which have direct

bearing to the present study are

segregated into foreign and local

studies.

Example of LOCAL STUDY:

In 1999, Sultan in her study on perceived sources of stress among staff nurses at a tertiary hospital in Quezon City, found out that lack of administrative support and no rewards were perceived by staff nurses as the most stressing… (Related local study by Vilma Sultan. 1999. “Perceived Sources of Stress Among Staff Nurses at Tertiary Hospital in Quezon City.” MA Thesis in Nursing. Central Philippine University, Iloilo City, Philippines.)

Sultan’s study has bearing to the present study because lack of administrative support, no rewards, and no opportunities for career development are among the job-related problems met by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City which block their way to perform effectively and efficiently. (EXPLANATION OF THE RELATED STUDY)

Conceptual – also known as constitutive, is that which is given in dictionaries. It is the academic or universal meaning attributed to a word or group of works. Moreover, it is mostly abstract and formal in nature.

Operational – also known as

functional. Operational definition

may be measured and experimental.

The measured operational definition

states the way the concept is

measured in the investigation. In an

experimental operational definition

the researcher may spell out the

details of the manipulation of a

variable.

Lesson 4

Lesson 5

Sampling – may be defined as the method of

getting a representative portion of the

population.

Population –is the aggregate or total of

objects, persons, families, species, or orders

of plants or animals.

UNIVERSE – the set of all entities under study

VARIABLE – attribute of interest observable on each entity in the universe

ELEMENT – is a member of the population. It is a unit in which data is collected and analyzed.

POPULATION – the set of all possible values of the variable. Also pertains to the total number of elements to be studied.

SAMPLE – subset of the universe or the population. It is a proportion, an element or part of the population which is scientifically and randomly drawn that actually possesses the same characteristics as the population.

SAMPLING – the process of selecting a sample or a representative portion of a population to represent the entire population.

PARAMETER – descriptive measure of the population ex. Mean income, mean age of all the families and age distribution of all the people.

SAMPLE SIZE – the number of subjects in the study.

MARGIN OF ERROR – the allowable error in percentage due to the use of the sample, instead of the population.

1. It saves time, money and effort.

2. It is more effective.

3. It is faster, cheaper and economical.

4. It is more accurate.

5. It gives more comprehensive

information.

1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classification due to small number of subjects.2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results can be erroneous.4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population.5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

1. State the objectives of the survey.2. Define the population.3. Select the sampling individual.4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample.5. Design the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific or nonscientific sampling.6. Determine the sample size.7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample.8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.10. Choose experts to administer the research instruments.

Step 1: Determine the total population (N) as

assumed subjects of the study.

Step 2: Get the value of V(2.58), Se(0.01),

and p(0.50).

Step 3: Compute the sample size using this

formula:

Ss = NV + [ Se2 (1-p)]

NSe + [ V2p(1-p)]

Sampling Designs

Sometimes population is difficult to identify

who makes up the entire population.

Sample is cheaper, faster, more accurate and

can yield tomore comprehensive information.

Getting the population is too costly in terms

of human resources and other expenses, and

time consuming.

In population, there is lot of error to control

and monitor.

Sometimes lists are rarely up to date.

Keys to Good Sampling

Formulate the aims of the study

Decide what analysis is require to satisfy this

Decide what data are required to facilitate the

analysis

Collect the data required by the study

Defective Sampling Sampling that is too small or not a representative

will be biased, invalid and unreliable

The sampling becomes very complicated if the population is too large or has many sections and subsections

The sample (respondents0 should have common characteristics in order to eradicate faulty conclusions

The sampling becomes biased and unrepresentative if the researcher does not possess the necessary skills and technical know-how of the sampling procedure.

An appropriate sample size is required for

validity

If the sample sizes are too small, it will not

yield valid results

An appropriate sample size can produce

accuracy of results

The results from small sample size will be

questionable

A sample size that is too large will result in

wasting money and time

Researchers

Scientific Sampling1. Restricted random sampling – This type of sampling design involves certain restrictions to improve the validity of the sample.2. Unrestricted random sampling – This is the best random sampling design due to no restrictions imposed, and every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

Lottery Technique

Table of Random Numbers

3. Stratified random sampling – This type of design divides the population into two or more strata.4. Systematic sampling – In this type of design the individuals of the population are arranged in a methodical manner.5. Multistage sampling – This design is done in several stages.6. Cluster sampling – In this type of design, the population is grouped into clusters or small units.

Nonscientific sampling1. Purposive sampling – This type of nonscientific sampling is based on selecting the individuals as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his controls.2. Incidental sampling – This type of sampling design is “applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available.”3. Quota sampling – This type of design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics.

Lesson 6

are those which are

collected for

specific purpose

directly from the

field of enquiry and

original in nature.

Such data are

published by

authorities who

themselves are

responsible for

their collection.

They are original

Example:

Documents

Creative

Interviews

Man-made

materials

Surveys

This is any source

cited for its

second-hand

information from a

different work.

It also pertains on

the data which

have already

collected by other

person who

entitled to

organize a data.

Example:

Unpublished

thesis and

dissertations

Manuscript

Journals

Deals with descriptions.

Data can be observed but not

measured. It approximates or

characterizes but does not

measure the attributes,

characteristics, and properties

of a thing or phenomenon.

Deals with numbers.

Data which can be

measured.

This method rely on random

sampling and structured

data collection instruments

that fit diverse experiences

into predetermined response

categories.

Clerical Tools and

Mechanical Tools

used when researcher studies people and gathers data on the feelings, emotions, attitudes and judgment of the subjects.

Example:

Questionnaire

Interview

Experiment

Observation

includes all tools that is used

in different branch of science.

It is more on to measure

things. Example:

Thermometers

Cameras

Microscopes

Meter stick

is a list of prepared questions or a checklist.

This is usually sent of distributed to respondents for the purpose of seeking their opinions, views, suggestions, or perceptions.

Practical

Large amounts of information can be collected

from a large number of people in a short period

of time

Can be carried out by the researcher or by any

number of people with limited affect to its

validity and reliability

The results of the questionnaires can usually be

quickly and easily quantified by either a

researcher or through the use of a software

package

Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and

objectively than other forms of research

Lacks validity

There is no way to tell how truthful a

respondent is being

There is no way of telling how much thought a

respondent has put in

The respondent may be forgetful or not

thinking within the full context of the situation

People may read differently into each question

and therefore reply based on their own

interpretation of the question

Doing a research with a specified topic

Talking to people with knowledge about

the topic

Study the guidelines on what data should

be gathered

Writing the Questionnaire

Revise the Questionnaire

Rewrite the Questionnaire

Pre-test the Questionnaire

Write the Questionnaire in the final form

Open-ended Questions – They are used in

qualitative interviews where the respondent is

made to explain why certain things is done.

Free Response Questions – They are asked in such

a way that the respondent does not limit the scope

of his answers or responses.

Multiple Choices – It is the most commonly used

type of questioning. It is a list of a number of

answers provided for every question.

Scaled Response – The respondents are given a range of categories in which to express their feelings or opinions.

Checklist – This is a form of multiple choice questions from which the respondents chooses one or more response categories.

Ranking Questions – This refers to an opinion question where the respondent is asked to rank comparatively the items listed either in ascending or descending order.

Dichotomous Question – There are only two possible answers to the questions like the Yes – No type.

1. Decide on the specific information needed and

its sources.

2. Prepare a list of sources of the specific

information needed.

3. Put yourself in a place of the respondents.

4. Understand the sequences in which these

various subjects should appear on the

questionnaire.

5. Decide on the type of question to use.

6. Write the actual question.

7. Provide proper spaces for the answers.8. Consider the facts needed to understand the results

properly.9. Examine the whole questionnaire.10. Try to time test yourself in answering the whole

questionnaire.11. See if the questions are clear, interesting, and

cordial.12. Reconsider the hypothesis to see if the questions

are asked to answer the research problem.13. Pre-test the questionnaire.14. Have the final form reproduced in the quality and

quantity needed.

1. Answers might be bias

2. The answers might be irrelevant.

3. Answers might be a guess.

4. The choice of words affect responses.

5. Some respondents give answers that

would make them appear good to a

researcher.

6. Irrelevant way of the respondents

answering the questionnaire.

– it would be a classified as a part of a questionnaire

where in it is normally written at the upper left

corner of the questionnaire that entails the message

of the researcher to the respondents

Things that should be seen in a cover letter would be:

Purpose of the questionnaire

The study itself

Thing to be gathered in the questionnaire for the research

Reasons it should be answered

Due date of the questionnaire

Guaranteed confidentiality for the respondents

Expressions of thanks to the respondents

These are the following to consider in

evaluating a questionnaire:

Grammar

Format

Arrangement of Questions

Relevant to the Study

Number of Questions

Format of the Questionnaire

Reliability of Questionnaire

Respondents

It is one of the major techniques

in gathering data or information.

It is a conversation between two

or more people where questions

are asked by the interviewer to

elicit facts or statements from

the interviewee.

The researcher could gain some insights

about the study, the variables to be use,

in making the hypothesis and generalize

questions and the methods to be use

statistically.

The researcher could add some more

significance about the study.

The researcher could collect some factual

data in order to be added for the support

of the study.

Generating more valid and compete

information

Interviewer can classify points or

questions which are vogue to the

interviewee

Seeing the sincerity in terms of answering

the questions

Flexibility

Greater complex questions can be asked

Respondents would be hard to be

contacted

Time consuming

Inaccurate in terms of getting

numerical data

Inaccurate due to bias data given by

the interviewee in favourable with

the study

Difficult to make conclusion

Structured Interview

Semi-structured Interview

Unstructured Interview

Description and/or Aim of interview:

- Normally, structured interviews are done in a face-to-

face format or via telephone using a standard set of

questions to obtain data that can be aggregated because

identical questions have been asked of each participant.

Nature of questioning route: fixed, given order, very

standardized

Type of question format/structure:

1. Open-ended

2. Closed-ended with ordered response choices

3. Closed-ended with unordered response choices

4. Partially closed-ended

Role of probing: Little or none, perhaps only repeating

or clarifying instructions

Description and/or aim of interview: “More or less open-ended questions are brought to the interview situation in the form of an interview guide” (Flick, 1998 p. 94). From the beginning the focus is on gaining an understanding based on textual information obtained. The level of depth of understanding that the researcher pursues is used to characterize this type of interview.

Nature of questioning route: flexible, but usually a given set of questions is covered, varying levels of standardization

1. Open-ended, yet directed at obtaining particular information (content, topic, aspects of theory, etc.)

2. In some cases, closed-ended style of questions are used

Role of probing: Get the participant to expand upon their answer, give more details, and add additional perspectives

Description and/or Aim of interview:

Normally, unstructured interviews are done in a

face-to-face format and some would say you are

trying to get participants to share stories. The

researcher starts from a position of wanting to be

sensitive to how participants construct their views

and perspectives of things. Therefore, a goal is to

allow the participant’s structure to dominate.

Nature of questioning route: ask questions to get

people to talk about constructs/variables of

interest to the researcher.

1. Open-ended – descriptive

2. Reactions to a given situation

presented by the researcher

Role of probing: Simply to get the

participant of talk about a topic area,

normally probing questions are not

directed, but rather asked to encourage

the participant to keep talking or to get

back to the subject of interest.

1. Interview

Schedule

It is like a

questionnaire.

Used when the

researcher knows

all the item to be

included in the

interview about

the research

problem.

2. Interview Guide

It only provides

ideas and allows the

interviewer to freely

pursue relevant

topics in depth.

The items provide

for flexibility in the

manner, order, and

language of

questioning.

1.Set the feeling tone for the interview

2.Set up Equipment

3.Prepare the Person

4.Start the Tape Recorders

5.Let the Interviewee Talk

6.Get Consent

7. Word/Name list

Being unprepared

Dress in a wrong manner

Don’t argue with the interviewee’s answer in the

questions

Don’t talk irrelevant manners

Don’t unduly pressing the respondent to make a

Don’t appear too high above the respondent in

education, knowledge and social status.

Don’t talk about irrelevant matters

Lesson 7

Data processing involves:

Input – it involves the responses from the

research instrument by the subjects of the

study.

Throughput – it includes statistical

procedures and techniques.

Output – the results of the study which are

presented in data matrix form.

Data processing

It consists of three basic steps:

1. Categorization of data

It refers to the grouping of subjects under

study according to the objectives or purposes

of the study.

Five rules in categorizing research

information by Kerlinger:

1. Categories are set up according to the

research problem.

2. The categories are exhaustive.

3. Each category is derived from one

classification principle.

4. The categories are mutually exclusive

and independent.

5. Any categorization scheme must be one

level of discourse.

2. Coding of data – Information from the questionnaire, tests, interview schedules, rating scale and many others must be transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of data.

3. Tabulation of data – this is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.

Data matrix

- Presentation of data in tabular form

3 Types of Data Matrices

Univariate matrix – involves only one

variable.

Bivariate matrix – involves two variables.

Multivariate matrix – has three or more

variables in the table.

Dummy tables

- Are helpful in preparing for the data

matrix because they are used in planning,

summarizing, organizing and analyzing the

data on how the different variables differ

with each other.

Lesson 8

It is a must that researchers diagnose the

problem by using the appropriate statistical

tool to arrive at accurate and definite

interpretation of results.

Incorrect Statistical Tool

- Percentage is incorrect or

inappropriate statistical tool to scale options

due to vague interpretation of results.

Univariate analysis

the examination of the distribution of cases ononly one variable at a time (e.g., collegegraduation)

Bivariate analysis

the examination of two variablessimultaneously (e.g., the relation betweengender and college graduation)

Multivariate analysis

the examination of more than two variablessimultaneously (e.g., the relationship betweengender, race, and college graduation)

Univariate analysis

Purpose: description

Bivariate analysis

Purpose: determining the empiricalrelationship between the two variables

Multivariate analysis

Purpose: determining the empiricalrelationship among the variables

Univariate Statistical Treatment- The appropriate statistical tool for univariateproblem is the weighted arithmetic mean and the like.

Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Experimental Research- The statistical tools for bivariate problem in experimental research are t-test and linear correlation.

Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Descriptive Research- The statistical tool used in bivariatedescriptive research problems are z-test and linear correlation.

is a grouping of all observations into interval

or classes together with a count of the

number of observations that fall in each

interval or class.