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transcript
Military Leadership and its
Consequences on Leadership in
Civil Organizations
Authors: Ivan Malkov &
Evgenii Sobolev
Tutor: Pr. Dr. MaxMikael
Wilde
Examiner: Pr. Dr. Philippe
Daudi
Date: 29.05.2014
Subject: Business
Administration
Program: Leadership and
Management in
International
Contexts
Level: Maste ’s Thes s
Course code: EALM1
Master thesis
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Ack ow ed me t
We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to Professor Philippe Daudi, Professor
e ke, Professor Mikael Lundgren, and ou tuto P ofesso MaxM kae W de .
At the beginning of work on our thesis Professor Daudi has helped us to determine the topic of
our study and find very interesting area for science research.
During our work on thesis P ofesso W de has always been with us. His ideas and tips
have had a huge impact on us, he helped to finish our thesis and achieve research goals.
Professor Bjerke helped us to choose methods to analyze empirical data. His participation was
invaluable. We would like to express special gratitude for Professor Mikael Lundgren. We are
grateful for his strictness, constructive criticism, not indifferent attitude to our work and,
especially, the scientific literature, which he gave us.
Furthermore, we would like to thank all respondents who participated in this study, and all
people who helped us in the course of work on our thesis.
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Abst act
The military leadership is a specific type of activity, presenting motivational, emotional and
intellectual challenges to the character of a military leader. The United States Army defines
eade sh p as ‘the p ocess of f ue c people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation
wh e ope at to accomp sh the m ss o a d mp ov the o a zat o ’ (Depa tme t of the
Army 2006, pp. 1–2). The United States Air Force (USAF) has the similar definition of
leadership: ‘the a t a d sc e ce of f ue c a d d ect peop e to accomp sh the ass ed
m ss o ’ (Depa tme t of the A Fo ce 2006, p.1). In these two definitions we can quite clearly
highlight two important elements, which are inherent to the leadership process; it is the mission
to lead people and followers who should perform delivered tasks.
In our opinion, the army has achieved a big success in the development of leadership unlike
other organizations, because the issue of leadership was arisen in the military sphere much
earlier than in civil organizations. In proof of this position, we can recall scientific works, which
were written by such great people as Sun Tzu (The Art of War, about 500-600 B.C), Maurice
(The Strategikon, 6th or 7th century A.D) and Carl von Clausewitz (On War, published in 1832).
Key Words: military leadership, military leader, military experience, army, military officer,
personality, moral core, soft skills, soft leadership, transformational leadership, personal
development, positive and negative sides.
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Tab e of co te ts
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Table of contents ........................................................................................................................................... 4
List of tables .................................................................................................................................................. 7
List of figures ................................................................................................................................................. 8
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1. A personal approach to study ............................................................................................................. 9
1.2. The influence of the Soviet military past on an organizational structure of the modern Russian
Army and Military Leadership .................................................................................................................. 9
1.3. Current issues related to leadership through the Army .................................................................... 11
1.4. Research Field .................................................................................................................................. 12
1.5. Research Focus and Research Question ........................................................................................... 13
2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Qualitative researchers: our perception of the research problem ..................................................... 14
2.2. A qualitative approach ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.3. Grounded Theory ............................................................................................................................. 16
2.4. Analysing our data: comparative analysis ........................................................................................ 18
2.4.1. Open coding .............................................................................................................................. 18
2.4.2. Axial coding............................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.3. Selective coding ......................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.4. Memos ....................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5. Data collection ................................................................................................................................. 20
2.5.1. Primary Data: Face-to-Face Research ..................................................................................... 20
2.5.2. Secondary data .......................................................................................................................... 22
3. Leadership in civil organizations ................................................................................................... 23
3.1. Organizational hierarchy .................................................................................................................. 23
3.2. Principles of management (H. Fayol) .............................................................................................. 25
3.3. Leadership style ............................................................................................................................... 26
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3.3.1. Transactional leadership ........................................................................................................... 26
3.3.2. Transformational leadership ..................................................................................................... 27
3.3.3. Directive leadership .................................................................................................................. 28
3.3.4. Empowering leadership ............................................................................................................. 29
3.3.5. Charisma ................................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.6. Leadership approaches ............................................................................................................. 30
3.3.7. Diminisher/multiplier style ........................................................................................................ 31
3.3.8. Soft leadership ........................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.9. Followership.............................................................................................................................. 33
3.3.10. The dark side of leadership ..................................................................................................... 34
4. Leadership in the Army ................................................................................................................ 36
4.1. The Army as a Contemporary Organization .................................................................................... 36
4.1.1. Combat Actions ......................................................................................................................... 37
4.2. The Nature of Military Leadership ................................................................................................... 38
4.3. Features of Military Leadership ....................................................................................................... 39
4.3.1. Training of the Military Leaders ............................................................................................... 39
4.3.2. Up or Out policy ........................................................................................................................ 39
4.3.3. Dangerous Environment ........................................................................................................... 40
4.3.4. Moral core of the Military Leaders ........................................................................................... 41
4.3.5. Key traits in character of the Military Leaders ......................................................................... 42
4.3.6. Toxic Leadership in the Army ................................................................................................... 45
5. Analyzing Our Findings ................................................................................................................. 47
5.1. Open Coding .................................................................................................................................... 48
5.2. Axial coding ..................................................................................................................................... 55
5.2.1. The image of the Military Leader .............................................................................................. 55
5.2.2. The positive influence of the military experience ...................................................................... 57
5.2.3. The negative influence of the military experience ..................................................................... 59
6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 61
7. Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 64
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References ...................................................................................................................................... 65
Appendix ......................................................................................................................................... 71
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L st of tab es
Table 1. The number of servicemen in Soviet and Russian Armies.............................................. 10
Table 2. Types of hierarchical organizations and their formal hierarchy ...................................... 24
Table 3. The 14 principles of management: then and now ............................................................ 27
Table 4. Significant warfares in the world history from 1990 till 2010 ........................................ 37
Table 5. Descriptive results for military environment ................................................................... 41
Table 6. Descriptive results for characteristics of military leaders .............................................. 43
Table 7. Descriptive results for military leadership benefits ......................................................... 43
Table 8. Leadership qualities ......................................................................................................... 44
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L st of f u es
Figure 1. Grounded theory in our thesis ........................................................................................ 19
F u e 2. Leve s of k ow ed e comp ehe s o e at ve to Koh be ’s s x sta es of mo a
development ................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 3. Proposed summary of military Off ce ’s Pe so a Qua t es ......................................... 44
Figure 4. The effectiveness of civil leadership .............................................................................. 62
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1. I t oduct o
1.1. A personal approach to study
Whe we we e w t ou thes s, o e of the sou ces of ou sp at o was the thes s ‘The A ts:
An Experience What Leade s Ca Lea F om A t st c Catha s s’ (Reinisch & Weber, 2013)
written by previous students of our programme.
We, the authors, both Russians. We were born in Leningrad. During the Great Patriotic War, the
city-hero Leningrad was in besieged position and keeping the constant attacks of the enemy for
900 days and nights. Our grandfathers took part in the Great Patriotic War and contributed to the
common cause of the Victory. Our fathers were serving in the Soviet Army. Perhaps we will
wear military uniform and go to defend our motherland in the near future.
In our casual life we constantly communicate with people who have finished the military service
o off ce ’s pos t o s. The ma o ty of th s peop e a e ve y successfu . Afte the military service
they can find their place in life. They have stable families, faithful friends and well-paid jobs,
they are confident in themselves and in their power. We see how they perform the tasks
successfully, how they make decisions and communicate with subordinates. According to these
facts, we can define that the military education and training that they have received in the course
of the military service have some influence on them. We believe that the modern army and civil
organizations have a lot of similarities in common. We can compare managers in various
management positions with the military leaders on different commanding levels, the conditions
of modern business with battlefield. Moreover, we would like to mention that military
leadership, army traditions, mentality and people who come back from the military service
always play an important role in the history of the Soviet and later Russian state.
In our opinion, the army has achieved a big success in the development of leadership unlike
other organizations, because the issue of leadership was arisen in the military sphere much
earlier than in the civil organizations. In proof of this position, we can recall the scientific works,
which were written by such great people as Sun Tzu (The Art of War, about 500-600 B.C),
Maurice (The Strategikon, 6th or 7th century A.D) and Carl von Clausewitz (On War, published
in 1832).
Therefore, we sincerely believe that military leadership and military leaders have a great
experience, which can be useful when they work in civil organizations. In accordance of this
statement, we have decided to write our thesis about military leadership and its consequences in
civil organizations.
1.2. The influence of the Soviet military past on an organizational structure of
the modern Russian Army and Military Leadership
In our thesis we present interviews with former officers of Soviet and Russian armies. In order to
understand the importance and influence of military leadership for the society we would like to
make a short historical review.
On 8th
of December 1991 the collapse of the Soviet Union was happened. On the geopolitical
map of the world the new sovereign state, the Russian Federation, was formed. The official date
of the Foundation of the Armed Forces of Russian Federation is considered on 7th
of May 1992.
At the moment of creation the Russian Federation Armed forces consisted of 2 880 000
personnel. A new defensive doctrine and the difficult economic situation in the country
conducted large-scale reductions in the Armed Forces in 1990 and on 1st of January 2008 the
number of troops was 1 434 629 people. In according with the military reform in 2008 the
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number of ensigns and warrant officers were subjected to reduction, 170 thousand officers were
also liquidated from their posts. On 1st of January 2013 payroll number of troops was amounted
to 766 055 people. In order to systemize this information we put it on Table 1.
Table 1. The number of servicemen in Soviet and Russian Armies (Karamishev 2014, p. 41)
In accordance with Table 1 we can note that the Soviet and later Russian government has a
common tendency to reduce a number of servicemen. This information also means that the
number of military personnels in the Armed Forces and a high percentage of people who
completed the military service, but continued a professional career in the civil sphere was very
high in every time.
We believe that it will be interesting to provide examples of famous politicians, public figures
and businessmen who have experience of the service in the armed forces of the Russian
Federation and the Soviet Union and use acquired military skills in everyday life and work.
1. Vladimir Kolokolcev – the Interior Minister, the Colonel-General of police;
2. Dmitry Kozak – the Deputy Chairman of Government. He served in the special forces of
the Main Intelligence Directorate of the Russian Federation;
3. Sergei Ivanov – the Head of Administration of the President of the Russian Federation,
the Colonel-General in resignation;
4. Georgy Poltavchenko - the Governor of St. Petersburg, the Lieutenant-General of tax
police in resignation;
5. Vladimir Yakunin - the P es de t of “Russ a Ra ways”. He se ved the State Security
Committee of the USSR;
6. Vladimir Shamahov – the Director of the North-Western Institute of Management of the
Russian Federation Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public
Administration. It is the largest European Higher Educational Institution, which trains
state and municipal officials;
7. Alexey Efentiev - the head of the largest Agro-industrial complex in Russia, the Colonel
in retirement. He performed combat tasks in Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Kosovo.
As a particular example, we would like to demonstrate several big businessmen of the Russian
Fede at o , who have ’t bee off ce s, but eve the ess passed the urgent service in the ranks of
the Sov et a d Russ a a m es: O e De paska (the ow e of the “ as c E eme t compa y” a d
industrial comp ex the “Russ a A um um”), Su e ma Ke mov (co t o s f a c a a d
dust a oup the “Nafta Moscow” a d the ow e of the “A ” footba c ub), Roma
Ab amov ch (the head of the “Syb eft compa y” a d the ow e of the “Che sea” footba c ub),
Serge Ga tsky (the fou de a d ow e of the ma o eta etwo k “Ma t”, the P es de t of
Year Numberofservicemen,people
1945 11 000 000
1946 3 000 000
1960 3 623 000
1974 3 940 000
1991 2 880 000
2008 1 434 629
2013 766 000
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the footba c ub “K as oda ”), O e T koff (the fou de of the "T koff b a d”, the head of the
‘T koff. C ed t Systems’).
Here we would like to add, that retired officers were high-qualified experts because one of the
most ‘eff c e t the wo d p act ce t a system fo off ce s a d so d e s’ (Ka am shev 2014,
p 40) have been created in the Soviet Union and later in the Russian Federation.
The modern complex of a military training in the modern Russian Army uses many technologies
and systems of training, which have been using successfully in the Soviet Army. Also we want
to note that the Soviet Army always was distinguished by an effective organization of
management and provision for the military contingent not only on the territory of the Soviet
Union, but also for the Soviet military forces located on the territory of foreign States (the group
of the Soviet forces in Germany, the group of Soviet military specialists on Cuba and so on).
The next important factor, which defines the strong influence of the military leadership and
military traditions on the organizational structure of civil organizations, is that the military
service is compulsory for each citizen of the Russian Federation who has attained 18 years and is
healthy for the service.
A logical conclusion from this factor is that a number of young people holding the military
service and a large number of former officers, have received the necessary leadership skills,
which certainly have influenced on further labor activity of these people and an organizational
structure of companies, where they will work.
The combination of these aspects is a direct evidence of the influence of the Military leadership
and army on a civil sphere of life in the Russian Federation.
1.3. Current issues related to leadership through the Army
I acco da ce w th the A my’s eade sh p doct a ma ua , F e d Ma ua (FM) 6-22 (2006),
A my eade sh p s ‘the p ocess of fluencing people by providing purpose, direction, and
motivation while operating to accomplish the m ss o a d mp ove the o a zat o ’ (p. 1-1). In
acco da ce w th commo def t o of eade sh p ve by Fa ese (2010), ‘ eade sh p s the
process of influencing others by providing purpose, motivation and direction to accomplish
m ss o s a d mp ove the o a zat o ’ (p. 31). These def t o s h h ht the fact that the
Army views leadership as a process and that this process requires specific competencies to be
effective.
‘I a y A my, a y t me, the pu pose of “ eade sh p” s to et the ob do e’ (Ko d tz 2007, p.
35). The competent military leaders develop trust, focus on their effort, clarify objectives, inspire
confidence, build teams, set the example, keep hope alive, and rationalize sacrifice. For this
century or the next, there is a little mystery about requisite leader competencies or behaviors.
Desirable qualities and skills may vary a bit, but the basic formula for leader success has changed
little in 2,000 years. However, the method for routinely inculcating, supporting, and sustaining the
desired leader behaviors has yet to be determined. (Ulmer 2010, p.131)
We can compare the modern Army with high-tech organization, which uses modern
technologies, scientific developments, advanced weapons systems, and requires highly qualified
staff with skills of military leadership, able to make decisions and trained to perform tasks.
Therefore, we argue that nowadays military leadership solves similar tasks as civil organizations
(logistics, supply, organizing, planning, motivation, etc.), so the military leaders can use their
skills and knowledge in a civil sphere. This fact may explain high demands placed on modern
military leader. For example,
platoon commanders are typically out of college for less than one year when they are given
responsibility for every facet of performance and discipline for 30 soldiers. Generally, a company
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commander is only six to eight years senior to a platoon commander and is responsible for 200
soldiers. (Maldonado 2012, p. 3)
High military education has always been one of the most prestigious and competitive in the labor
market, first of all it is connected with the fact that military universities provide the highest level
of educational services and allow to use the received knowledge and skills not only in military,
but also in civil organizations.
It is necessary to understand how exactly the preparation of a military specialist is different from
the training of a civil servant. First, the a my uses ‘a “up o out” system’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11), n
which soldiers who fail in promotion must ultimately leave the Army. This stands in contrast to
civilian organizations, in which an employee can attain a certain level and then remain at that
eve u t et eme t. Seco d y, the state does ot h e eade s outs de. I stead, comma de ’s
positions are filled by individuals, which were promoted within the organization.
These two characteristics highlight why it is pa t cu a y c t ca fo the A my ‘to devote
esou ces to deve op eade s’ (Pete so 2012, p. 43). G ve th s co text, t s ot su p s
that the Army is a world-class training institution as well as a major contributor to researches of
the leadership development.
A professional formation of an officer is a dynamic process, contributing the development of
professional and personal qualities of an officer to help shape the behavior of obligation and
providing installation on the absorption of professional knowledge, abilities and skills, which are
necessary for successful performance the special duties not only in the military, but also in the
civil sphere.
As the Army requires lots of high-intelligence p ofess o a s w th ‘b a s’, the military leaders
can be best-trained, experienced and mission-driven employees in the civilian workforce. Huge
changes have occurred in military leadership in recent twenty years. So we can conclude that
nowadays the Army uses modern technology and equipment and has common points with civil
organizations.
1.4. Research Field
From our point of view, the army is a social institute bringing up a particular leadership style. In
this way, we think it is important to investigate the elements of personal development in the
context of military leadership. In order to consider military leadership as a personal
characteristic, we have decided to formulate our understanding of the military mentality, which
includes special traits, values and principles. So in this work we formulate the concept of unique
leadership style, which distinguishes the military leaders from the civilian leaders.
In accordance with Sewell (2009) we can define three levels of leadership in the Army: direct
(the level of platoon commanders), organizational (the level of battalion commanders) and
strategic (the level of generals) (p. 101). However our study is conducted on direct and
organizational levels, because on these levels commanders communicate with their subordinates.
Functions of the military leaders at these positions are similar to functions of middle managers in
civil organizations.
Indeed, decision-making and problem solving processes in the army have own special features
supporting the authority and credibility of the military leaders. We assume that elements of
thinking and practices of the military leaders can be implemented in civil organizations. Hence,
we believe that it is necessary to explore how these elements are used in civil organizations at the
present time.
One of the most crucial parts in our work is the real experience of Russian former officers who
are holding leading positions in business, entrepreneurship and public organizations. So we want
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to determine how the military experience of real Russian officers and their leadership skills
influence on organizational structures, which they manage.
Eventually, it is important for us to define what we can learn from the process of implementation
elements of military leadership in civil organizations. In order to understand this effect we
decided to conduct a series of interviews with people who hold leadership positions in the middle
management of commercial and government organizations. Each personality has different
military ranks, a special military experience in different types of troops, a different way of how
he or she has come to civilian work. We are interested to identify the relationship between the
past military experience, success or difficulties in current places of work and leadership as a
result of personal development during the military service. Thus, in our interviews we want to
determine how the army impacts on leadership potential and what can be contributed to
leadership in civil organizations from the military experience.
1.5. Research Focus and Research Question
Our aim in this work is to define possible benefits of the military experience, which are used in
civil organizations by the former officers. We were not sure what kind of impact military
leadership has on the work of civil organizations. So for us it is important to recognize the
positive and negative nature of the influence of the military experience on civil organizations.
We want to determine what might hinder the effective using of the military experience in civil
organizations. Hence, it is important to define how to avoid a baneful influence and get more
benefits from the military experience and what ideas can be borrowed from the military
experience.
Thus, we formulated our research question in the following way:
How does the military experience influence the performance, efficiency or failure of leadership
in civil organizations?
Also, we would like to add that we agree with following definition of research question: ‘The
problem is that one presupposes that social scientists possess a “u que k ow ed e” of what is
ca ed the “occup ed popu ace”’ (Daudi 1986, p. 117). At the beginning of our work we will
explain our methodology. Then we will present our analysis of the scientific literature within the
research field. We will show previous researches on the military leadership with relevance to the
focus on research question. We will investigate the components that define unique military
leadership style. It is important to show the influence of the army on the personal development of
the officers.
The main part of our thesis is based on empirical data gathered through qualitative interviews
with the former military officers working in civil organizations. We will show their personal
understanding of leadership, the development of their leadership through military experience and
how they evaluate the possible benefits or negative sides of the impact of their military
experience on the present work.
In conclusion, we will present an analysis of our findings. Based on analysis of scientific
literature and a set of interviews, we will try to deduce the general features characterizing the
influence of the military experience on the work of former officers in civil organizations.
2. Methodo o y
In this chapter of the thesis we will share our methodological approach. We will show how we
approached our research, how we collected our data, and how we analyzed the data. We have
decided to use qualitative approach in our study.
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Persons choose to do research because they have a dream that somehow that will make a difference
in the world through the insights and understandings they arrive at. There are many reasons for
choosing to do qualitative research, but perhaps the most important is the desire to step beyond the
known and enter into the world of participants, to see the world from their perspective and in doing
so make discoveries that will contribute to the development of empirical knowledge. (Corbin &
Strauss 2008, p. 15)
2.1. Qualitative researchers: our perception of the research problem
Corbin and Strauss (2008) name the person conducting research and attempting to reach the
essence of the esea ch quest o as a ‘qua tat ve esea che ’ (p. 13). During the time of working
on the thesis, we have conducted data collection, analysis of information and other activities of
research character in accordance with the definition of the qualitative researcher. Later in this
part, we would like to express what we mean by this definition. According to our understanding,
qualitative researchers aim at deep understanding of human behavior and the reasons that lead to
such a behavior. The qualitative method investigates all spheres of decision-making process. In
accordance with Corbin and Strauss (2008) qua tat ve esea che s e oy the ‘se e d p ty’ a d
the ‘d scove y’ (p. 25). We believe that these qualities are very important in conducting research,
especially in the process of obtaining data for the study from the interviews. In our study we will
conduct in-depth interviews with different people, where we will definitely have to use
serendipity, inner intuition and sensitivity. The process of collection of theoretical and empirical
information, further analysis of the received data is a necessary stage in the work of researchers,
if they want to achieve objectivity in the esea ch. ‘Se s t v ty sta ds co t ast to ob ect v ty. It
equ es that a esea che put h mse f to the esea ch’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 32). The
qualitative method allows to qualitative researchers present a full participants point of view on
the studied object.
The most important thing for us is the desire to step beyond the known data and enter into the
world of participants, to see the world from their perspective and make a research that will
co t bute to the deve opme t of emp ca k ow ed e. As Co b a d St auss (2008) states, ‘a
qua tat ve esea che shou d be cu ous, c eat ve, a d ot af a d to t ust h s o he st cts’ (p.
27).
Furthermore, on the basis of books written by such authors as Corbin, Strauss, Denzin, Savin-
Baden, we can cite the main characteristics, which a qualitative researcher should have:
‘A huma st c be t’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);
‘C eat v ty a d ma at o ’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);
‘A se se of o c’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);
‘The ab ty to eco ze d ve s ty as we as e u a ty’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13);
‘A w ess to take sks’ (De z 2005, p. 24);
‘The ab ty to wo k th ou h p ob ems the f e d’ (De z 2005, p. 24);
‘A accepta ce of the se f as esea ch st ume t’ (Sav -Baden 2013, p.58)
‘T ust the se f a d the ab ty to see va ue the wo k that s p oduced’ (Sav -Baden
2013, p.58).
We as qualitative researchers would like to add that it will be useful for us if the subject of our
study is interesting, not only in the scientific circle, but also among people who are interested in
the p ob em a sed ou thes s. ‘Th s s because the qua tat ve esea che s take w th eat
seriousness the wo ds a d act o s of the peop e’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 14).
2.2. A qualitative approach
We have decided to use a qualitative approach for our research. Denzin (2005) defines the
qualitative research as a method of inquiry applied in many different academic disciplines,
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traditionally in social sciences, but also in market researches a d fu the co texts (p. 38). ‘The
basis of philosophy of the qualitative research is idea that our reality is the accumulated
expe e ce of the peop e vo ved the commu cat o p ocess’ (S av -Baden 2013, p. 46). By
using a qualitative method, we want to obtain accurate and valid data and also we want achieve
the correct description and interpretation of the social phenomena, which we study in our thesis.
‘Th s app oach to stud es ves us the poss b ty to do esea ch whe e tt e has bee do e so fa ’
(Reinisch & Weber 2013, p. 13).
According to Corbin and Strauss (2008), interpretation is
the basis of qualitative research, in which experts are focused on the study of complexity, the
correctness of the hypothesis on the relationship between the context of the researcher and the
context of the investigated phenomena, and also they try to minimize inaccuracies conclusions. (p.
30)
I most cases, a qua tat ve study takes p ace the ‘ atu a e v o me t’ (Co b & St auss
2008, p. 25; Marshall & Rossman 1989, p. 16). Thus, the topics of the research are problems
with that we encounter every day in our daily life (Van Maanen 2003, p. 67). So, Denzin argues
that the basis of qualitative research is the interpretation, which can be characterized by three
signs. First, the qualitative research is the study of discourse. Secondly, the qualitative approach
helps to study interpretive principles that people use in the process of deciphering information.
Third, the qualitative research is the identification of contextual-forming factors (Denzin 2005, p.
54). We believe, that this method will be good at our study, because ‘the method plays a decisive
role in determining whether one will be able to grasp meaningful dimensions of reality’ (Daud ,
p. 116).
‘O e of the v tues of qua tat ve esea ch s that the e are ma y a te at ve sou ces of data’
(Corbin & St auss 2008, p. 27). That’s mea that we ca use te v ews, obse vat o s, v deos,
documents and other sources for gaining information for our research. The strength of the
qua tat ve esea ch s ts ‘ab ty to p ov de comp ex textua desc pt o s of how people
expe e ce a ve esea ch ssue’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 28). It p ov des fo mat o about
the personal side of an issue – that is, the often opposite behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions,
and relationships of individuals. In our opinion, qualitative methods are also very effective
because they can help researchers to define and identify such intangible factors as social norms,
moral factors, socioeconomic status, gender roles, the psychology of the respondent, ethnicity,
and religion, whose o e the esea ch ssue may ot p ay a s f ca t o e. ‘Qua tat ve
research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values,
op o s, behav o s, a d soc a co texts of pa t cu a popu at o s’ (St auss & Co b 2008, p.
231). Qualitative research can help us to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a
given situation and the implications of qualitative data. Even more important advantage of using
this method is that an qualitative approach allows us to get the internal experience of participants
in our research and to define how meanings are formed through and in culture, and to discover
rather than test variables.
The basis for practical information in our work is in-depth interviews with experts. The number
of respondents in our case will not exceed 8 people, thus we consider it advisable and useful to
use a qualitative research approach.
In our opinion, we should clarify the differences between qualitative and quantitative
approaches. According to Kumar (2005), the main difference of qualitative methods in compare
with quantitative methods is that, in the first case, data is collected from a quite small group of
espo de ts a d a a yzed by us stat st cs (p. 97). ‘Qua tat ve methods volve collecting
fo mat o a f ee fo m’ (Kuma 2005, p. 122). In our vision this means that qualitative
methods do ’t focus o stat st c measu eme ts, but they a e based o u de sta d , exp a at o
and interpretation of empirical data to formulate hypotheses and productive ideas. The task of the
qualitative methods of research is to obtain exploration data.
Malkov & Sobolev 16
Another reason explaining why qualitative methods involve collecting information in a free form
is that we have many choices related to data collection ranging from grounded theory practice,
storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Savin-Baden (2013) states that the most
common method using in the qualitative research is interview (p. 68). In our study we use
another methods of the data collection: observations, reflections, field notes. In our case the main
way to obtain empirical information in the study is a conducting interviews with experts in our
esea ch f e d. ‘Stat st cs m ht be te est , but t s the e d ess poss b t es to learn more
about peop e that qua tat ve esea che s eso ate to’ (Co b & St auss 2008, p. 13).
According to De z (2005), o e adva ta e of qua tat ve methods esea ch s us of ‘ope -
ended questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words,
athe tha fo c them to choose f om f xed espo ses, as qua t tat ve methods do’ (p. 77). We
suggest that open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:
• ‘mea fu a d cu tu a y sa e t to the pa t c pa t’ (De z 2005, p. 78);
• ‘u a t c pated by the esea che ’ (De z 2005, p.78);
• ‘ ch a d exp a ato y atu e’ (De z 2005, p.79).
We suppose that researcher should listen carefully to what participants say, engage with them
according to their individual personalities and styles, and use intuition and subquestions to
encourage them to elaborate on questions. We believe that, in general, qualitative approach will
be ve y usefu fo us because by us th s app oach ‘as esea ches we a p eco nition of that
we study, be t peop e, oups, soc ety, o spec f c phe ome a’ (Daud , p. 126).
2.3. Grounded Theory
The Grounded Theory first was introduced by Glaser a d St auss (1967) the book ‘The
D scove y of G ou ded Theo y’. Scientists have developed a methodology that can allow
researchers to use the process of collecting and analyzing the data as a basis for generating a
theory.
During the years grounded theory has been evolving. Some points of the theory have been
changed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) who applied the principles of symbolic interactionism. As
Blumer (1969) a ues, ‘symbo c te act o sm s a theo y of huma oup fe a d huma
co duct’ (c ted L cqu sh & Se bo d 2011, p. 12). Acco d to th s theo et ca app oach,
people take part in different social events and develop own meanings of these interactions. In
order to interpret such meanings through social interactions symbolic interactionism includes
‘obse vat o of face-to-face te act o s’ (E wa d 2013, p. 37). O this basis, Strauss and
Corbin consider that the theory should be interpreted by observer, but not be grounded in the
data. In other words, the observer develops the theory based on the data only to understand some
social events. Furthermore, Strauss and Corbin introduced more complex procedure of the data
a a ys s o de to ou ded theo y was mo e measu ab e. G ase (2007) c t c zes th s St auss’s
a d Co b ’s app oach to the grounded theory. He a ues that ‘applying a preconceived
theoretical framework to a grounded theory project is contrary to the inductive nature of the
p ocess’ (Licqurish & Seibold 2011, p. 12).
The grounded theo y ca be co s de ed as a ‘systematic research approach involving the
discovery of theory through data collection and ana ys s’ (Engward 2013, p. 37). It allows
researchers to generate theory through research data. The basic elements of the grounded theory
are collection, coding and analysis of qualitative data. Glaser and Strauss (1967) regard the
theo y ‘as an ever-developing entity, not as a pe fected p oduct’ (p. 32). In other words, the
generation of the theory is unceasing, continuous process, which includes simultaneous
collection, coding and analysis of the data.
Malkov & Sobolev 17
The generation of the theory involves a process of ‘theo et ca samp ’. It s ‘the process of
data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyzes his
data a d the dec des what data to co ect ext a d whe e to f d them’ (G ase & St auss 1967,
p. 45). This process is controlled by the emerging theory (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 45). The
procedure of theoretical sampling begins during the data collection and involves searching the
most important categories for the generating theory. It gives the opportunity to test or refine new
ideas getting during the process of data collection.
The process of analyzing data is based o ‘cod ’ data into categories, which are compared with
each other. Glaser (1978) d st u shes betwee ‘substa t ve’ a d ‘theo et ca ’ coding (p. 55).
‘Substa t ve codes co ceptua ze the emp ca substa ce of the a ea of esea ch’ (G ase 1978,
p. 55). This process refers to coding closely related to data. Theoretical coding involves
te p etat o s of ‘how the substa t ve codes may elate to each other as hypotheses to be
integrated into the theory' (Glaser 1978, p. 55).
St auss a d Co b d st u sh betwee th ee phases of cod : ‘ope cod ’ (St auss a d
Co b 1990, p. 195), ‘ax a cod ’ (St auss a d Co b 1990, p. 195) a d ‘se ect ve cod ’
(St auss a d Co b 1998, p. 143). Ope cod efe s to a p ocess of ‘b eak data apa t a d
delineating concepts to stand for blocks of raw data' (Strauss and Corbin 1990, p. 195). Open
coding allows generating concepts and categories that te p et the data. Ax a cod s ‘the act
of e at co cepts/cate o es to each othe ’ (St auss a d Co b 1990, p. 198). Du ax a
coding concepts and categories are putting back together by making connections between them.
And selective cod s ‘the p ocess of te at a d ef the theo y’ (St auss a d Co b
1998, p. 143). According to this process, the core category is selecting. It fills in poorly
developed categories and characterizes the main ideas of the theory.
A strategic method for generating theory in the grounded theory is using of constant comparative
analysis of the data. I th s method, ‘each unit of coding is compared to every other unit of
coding, and each category is compared to other categories; codes are compared to categories,
c de ts to c de ts’ (Connely 2013, p. 124).
During the process of comparative analysis we can et such e eme ts of data as, ‘conceptual
categories and their conceptual properties; and hypotheses or generalized relations among the
catego es a d the p ope t es’ (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 35).
According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), a cate o y s ‘a conceptua e eme t of the theo y’ (p.
36) a d a p ope ty s ‘a co ceptua aspect o e eme t of a cate o y’ (p. 36) indicated by the data.
‘Hypotheses have at first the status of suggested, not tested, relations among categories and their
properties, though they are verified as much as poss b e the cou se of esea ch’ (Glaser &
Strauss 1967, p. 39).
G ou ded theo y ca be used to ‘increase unde sta d of soc a phe ome a’ (Clamp and
Gough 1999 cited in Engward 2013, p. 37). It means that the grounded theory is considered as an
app oach that exp a s ‘relationships and events that reflect the life experiences of those people
and processes that the researche s attempt to u de sta d’ (Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 31).
This is a one of the main aspects, which distinguishes grounded theory from other qualitative
methodologies. We have discovered social phenomena of the military leaders in civil
organizations by looking at their military and life experience. We were guided by personal
stories of our interviewees, problems, which they face, and methods, which help them to solve
these problems.
Turner (1981) supposes that grounded theory is su ted to dea w th ‘qualitative data of the
kind gathered from participant observation, from the observation of face-to-face interaction,
from semi-structured or unstructured interviews, from case-study material or documentary
sou ces’ (cited in Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 35). For our thesis we have chosen in-depth
interviews as a method to collect data for our theory. This method generates information in
Malkov & Sobolev 18
disorganized format that is difficult for the perception. Grounded theory offers special methods
for selecting and analyzing this kind of data like theoretical sampling, coding, and comparative
analysis.
Another important advanta e of ou ded theo y s that ‘a documented record of the progress of
the a a ys s s e e ated’ (Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 35) during the study. Grounded theory
approach has allowed us to trace the development of the theory on each stage, from the
beginning of the study till the final version of the theory. Our data was changing during the
process of generating theory, but we can look through all alterations of theory due to our memos
and field notes, which contain additional information about the research process.
Another important aspect of grounded theory, which distinguishes it from other qualitative
research methods, is its focus on the theory development (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The
processes of data collection and analysis were conducted simultaneously. According to the
ou ded theo y, ‘the theories are constructed not only at the end, but already during the process
of esea ch’ (Re sch & Webe 2013, p. 15). We were reading articles and books during the
whole research process. We prepared questions for interviews, changed those questions and
added new ones. Finally, we formulated the theoretical categories to divide the collected data in
groups using our field notes and memos.
Grounded theory is helpful for researchers investigating a social phenomena where there are
minimal previous researches. As Enqward (2013) claims, the grounded theory provides a
methodology to 'develop and understanding of social phenomena that is not pre-formed or pre-
theoretically developed with existing theory and paradigms' (p. 38). The researches of leadership
in the context of our thesis are poorly represented in the scientific literature. Hence, we did not
keep well informed about military leadership in civil organizations and have created our
theoretical framework during the research process.
Consequently, we suppose that grounded theory approach is well suited for generating new
theo es that offe ‘fresh insights into and interpretations of socia p ocesses th ou h compa so ’
(Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 92). As Simmons (2006) w tes, ou ded theo y ‘avoids making
assumptions and instead adopts a more neutral view of human act o a soc a co text’ (cited in
Engward 2013, p. 37). We did not need to define in advance what result we wanted to get and
how a social phenomenon will be investigated. We determined research methods, collected data
and analyzed it in accordance with principles of grounded theory.
2.4. Analysing our data: comparative analysis
The important part of our study is analyzing the data. As Arbnor and Bjerke (2009) notes,
a a ys s mea s ‘a tho ou h vest at o of a ex st s tuat o ’ (p. 93). In order to provide
such investigation we used the constant comparative method and coding procedures. We have
t ed to be ‘the co st ucto s of a theo y, athe tha ts d scove e s’ (Re sch & Webe 2013, p.
16). We separated the process of analyze in several stages, which are presented in Figure 1. This
demonstrates the way in which we have conducted our research from formulating theoretical
framework and collecting primary and secondary data till generating substantive theory through
comparative analyze and coding process.
2.4.1. Open coding
According to Charmaz (2006), cod s ‘a p vota k betwee co ect data a d deve op
a eme e t theo y to exp a these data’ (p. 39). Ope cod a owed us to e e ate as ma y
ideas as possible from early collected data. Glaser (1978) gives three questions that help us to
implement the open coding:
What s th s data a study of? … What cate o y does th s c de t d cate? … What s actua y
happening in the data? What is the basic social psychological problem(s) faced by the participants
in the action scene? (cited in Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 32)
Malkov & Sobolev 19
We tried to keep in mind these questions during the process of analyze. We started with test of
ou te v ew’s otes e by e to de t fy ma themes. We s ed out the most e eva t fo
our research words and phrases in each sentence of interview records. We did this in order to
determine key ideas that characterized each interviewee in the most extent. Afterward, we
compared those words and phrases to each other to define similarities and differences between
participa ts of ou su vey (Re sch & Webe 2013). As Law e ce & Ta (2013) suppose, ‘ deas,
actions, thoughts that are found to be conceptually similar or related in meaning are grouped
u de mo e abst act co cepts te med cate o es’ (p. 32). O the bas s of s m larity and
difference, we classified the words and phrases into groups to identify the basic categories. At
this stage we don't know exactly which of them will be most valuable for our theory.
Figure 1. Grounded theory in our thesis (source: adapted from Reinisch & Weber 2013)
MILITARYEXPERIENCE
MILITARYLEADERSHIP
CIVILLEADERSHIP
Primaryandsecondarydata
Theoreticalframework Theoreticalframework
Comparativeanalysis
FIRST-STAGECODES
BASICCATEGORIES
CORECATEGORIES
SUBSTANTIVETHEORY
Opencoding
Axialcoding
Selectivecoding
Malkov & Sobolev 20
2.4.2. Axial coding
The fo mu at o of cate o es s a ded by the ‘co sta t compa at ve method’ (G ase & St auss
1967; Strauss & Corbin 1990). Compa at ve a a ys s, as a method, ‘forces the researcher to
“tease out” the emerging category by searching for its structure, temporality, cause, context,
dimensions, consequences and its re at o sh p to othe cate o es’ (Hutchinson 1988 cited in
Lawrence & Tar 2013, p. 34). According to this method, t s eed to make ‘coding an incident
for a category, and compare it with previous incidences in the same and different groups coded
the same cate o y’ (G ase a d St auss 1967, p. 106). Ax a cod s co s de ed as ‘a method
of integrating analysis through connecting categories – by deploying as a general frame of
reference the context, conditions, strategies and consequences that cha acte ze te act o ’ (Dey
2004 cited in Seale et al. 2007, p. 85)
We analyzed categories through axial coding the data and wrote down important memos on our
ideas simultaneously. We needed to decide which of the open codes are most relevant, and which
of them contribute most to the analysis. Hence, the process of coding became increasingly
selective. We compared basic categories in order to understand connections between them and
tried to think more abstractly about what sense the various categories have and what is different
between them.
2.4.3. Selective coding
Finally, we stopped our data analysis when we interpreted our basic categories and came to the
core category that explains the theory (St auss a d Co b 1990) a d ‘best ef ects the
pa t c pa ts’ solution to their main concer w th the p ocess u de study’ (Scott 2009 cited in
Connely 2013, p. 124).
The final result of our study is a comprehensive theory that explains our research object and
answers on the main research question. We formulated our findings in a substantive theory. It is
‘a theory for the substantive area o wh ch t has do e esea ch’ (Glaser & Strauss 1967, p. 114).
In other words, we generated the theory that explains the influence of military experience on
leadership in civil organizations. This theory is based on our theoretical framework and results of
interviews with the former military officers.
2.4.4. Memos
We were writing memos of events, cases, categories and relationships between categories during
data collection and ana ys s. Memo w t he ped us ‘to organize thinking about how the data
fits together and to help in the articulation of patterns and eme ks betwee codes’ (Glaser
& Strauss 1967, p. 108).
When we analyzed and coded our interviews, we wrote memos to catch the important ideas
about codes through the data analysis and coding. In addition, we used memos to reflect on our
personal background that may affect the study. This method was useful for us also, when we
read additional literature for our study. We made short notes about all books and articles, which
we had read. These abstracts contained a lot of additional information and our personal
reflections about the research question.
2.5. Data collection
2.5.1. Primary Data: Face-to-Face Research
‘I te v ew s a commo y used method of co ect fo mat o peop e’ (Kuma 2005, p.
123). During our life we collect information through different forms of interaction with others.
As Kuma (2005) states, ‘a y pe so -to-person interaction between two or more individuals with
a spec f c pu pose m d s ca ed te v ew’ (p. 121). Acco d to o da (2002),
interviewing can be flexible, when the interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions in that
way they come to his or her mind around the investigating issue (p. 221).
Malkov & Sobolev 21
‘The e a e seve a types of u st uctu ed te v ew ; fo examp e: -depth interviewing, focus
oup te v ew , a at ves a d o a h sto es’ (Kuma 2005, p. 124). We th k that the
process of data collection through unstructured interviewing is important and beneficial for our
research.
One of the main sources to obtain empirical data in our work is a conducting interviews with
experts in the field of military leadership, the former military officers of the Soviet and Russian
armies who work in a civil sphere at the present time. This type of interview is called in-depth
interviews. Conducting our interviews with the participants of the research, we asked the
respondents basic questions prepared in advance and additional questions concerning the topic of
ou study. As Re sch & Webe (2013) otes, th s eads ‘to very interesting and thought
p ovok esu ts that have p ov ded us w th e e y to co t ue ou esea ch w th e thus asm’
(p. 19).
We believe that only this way can provide an objective and correct information for our analysis.
Also we would like to point that ‘the process of collecting data about human behavior is itself a
social process and shares features in common with other situations and events of human
inte act o ’ (Daud 1986, p. 120).
We would like to conduct in-depth interviews with our respondents. According to Denzin
(1984), ‘ -depth interviewing is repeated face-to-face encounters between the researcher and
informants directed towards understanding informants perspectives on their lives, experiences, or
s tuat o s as exp essed the ow wo ds’ (p. 138). Th s def t o u de es two esse t a
characteristics of in-depth interviewing:
1. ‘It vo ves face-to-face, repeated interaction between the resea che a d h s fo ma ts’
(Denzin 2005, p. 139);
2. ‘It seeks to u de sta d the atte ’s pe spect ves’ (Tay o 2005, p. 42).
In conducting in-depth interviews, we established a trust relationship with our respondents; it is
assumed that the rapport between the researcher and the informant is enhanced. Hence, we could
get frank answers and reliable information. Ultimately, we want to ensure that interviews were
held in an informal and friendly atmosphere, but at the same time, we would not like to go so far
away from pre-written plan of questions.
We had prepared a list of basic questions, swinging the subject of military leadership. In addition
to the questions we intend to use techniques, which encourage respondents to spend long and
detailed discussions about research issues. We have been conducting our interviews face-to-face
with participants for approximately 50 minutes. During interviews we explored personal
opinions of the respondents, their beliefs and values on the subject of our research. We consider
that it will be very efficient way to co ect fo mat o , because ‘the observer is in a face-to-face
relationship with observed, and, by participating with them in their natural life setting, he gathers
data’ (Daud 1986, p. 131).
We believe it will be interesting for our readers to look a brief biography of participants in our
study and so you can see a full list of people accepted to help us and take part in our study
below:
1. Sergei Ermakov is a colonel. Currently he works at a position of the Dean of research
faculty of the graduate and postgraduate study in the North-West Institute of the Russian
Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.
2. Natalia Petrova is a captain of justice. Now she is an owner of the law company.
Malkov & Sobolev 22
3. Dmitry Napreev is a major of justice. Now he is the head of the security department in
the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and
Public Administration.
4. Ravil Kamalov is a major of justice. Currently he takes a position of the chief of the audit
department in the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National
Economy and Public Administration.
5. Vladimir Petrov is a colonel. Now he is a chief of the IT department in the trade
organization.
6. Vladimir Kupcov is a colonel. Now he is a Deputy General Director of the construction
company.
7. Victor Savin is a colonel. Now he is a chief specialist in the science and technology
center.
8. Vladimir Naumov is a captain of the first rank. Now he is the head of the department of
business informatics in the North-West Academy of Public Administration.
The reasons why we have chosen these people to interview are multiple. Firstly, these people are
experts in a military sphere. They all have rich experience of the service in the army in positions,
which require constant communication with subordinates, and the managing positions in civil
organizations. Another important reason is that all respondents of our survey are our friends or
familiar people. This fact can be explained by the fact that the education and bringing up of the
Soviet and Russian officers is not conducive to the free speaking about information, skills and
abilities, received for years of the service in the Army. If such people agree to take part in an
interview, they prefer to do it with fellow researchers.
We have to note here that conducting interviews with the Soviet and Russian officers make some
limitations on using our results because they reflect the experience of only one country.
Nevertheless, we will unite these results with results of some surveys conducted in other
countries in order to get more useful outcome.
2.5.2. Secondary data
In support of, and in addition to the primary data we have collected secondary data. We can
determine primary data as ‘the data, wh ch has ece ved d ect y by the esea che s the
esea ch p ocess th ou h te v ews, su veys, quest o a es etc.’ (Kuma 2005, p. 124). He e, a
researchers conceives of and develops a research project, collects data designed to address
specific questions, and performs own analyses of the data, which he or she collected. Therefore,
people involved in the data analysis are familiar with the research design and data collection
p ocess. ‘Seco da y data, howeve , s the use of data that was collected by someone else for
some other purpose. In this case, the researchers pose questions that are addressed through the
a a ys s of a data set that they we e ot vo ved co ect ’ ( o da 2002, p. 197). The data
was not collected to answer the esea che ’s spec f c esea ch quest o s; t was co ected fo
another purpose. The one data set can be a primary data set to one researcher and a secondary
data set to another researcher at the same time.
According to Boslaugh (2007), in order to use secondary data in analysis, it should be done some
special procedures. Since the researcher did not collect the data, he or she is usually not familiar
with the data (p. 79). Basically, the researcher needs to become as familiar as possible with the
data set and the data collection process.
Malkov & Sobolev 23
3. Leade sh p c v o a zat o s
In this part of our thesis we want to reveal the main points of leadership theory, which, in our
opinion, is important to consider military leadership in the next part of our thesis. First of all, we
view possible leadership styles that reflect different essential features of the behavior of leaders
in civil organizations. Furthermore, we consider possible approaches to lead people in
organizations, covering different elements of organizational policy. Special attention in this part
is paid to followership, because we believe that the understanding of leadership would be
incomplete without revealing the influence of followers on the leader.
Since our research focus is aimed at military leadership experience in civil organizations, at the
beginning we write about what defines the relationship between superior and subordinates in the
organization – organizational hierarchy and basic management principles.
3.1. Organizational hierarchy
Most social systems are based on stable hierarchical relationships of superiors and subordinates.
The activity of organizations is based on legitimate power, coming from the head of organization
to his subordinates and reinforced by special administrative rules. It is called authority. Indeed, it
defines hierarchical relationships in organization.
Weber created a concept of bureaucracy (1946) where he gave an explanation of the
bureaucratically administered organization. He distinguished three styles of administration based
on different types of legitimative power in organization. These types are
(1) traditional authority in which a person claims identity with some group of persons who have
always had authority, (2) charismatic authority in which an individual has recourse to personality,
expertise, or the use of sacred symbols specific to himself, and (3) rational-legal authority in which
reference is made to some coherent system of laws or rules stemming from an overall system of
administration (Mansfield 1973, p. 477).
The third style is bureaucratic style, which is defined by a system of rules and ordered
procedures. It is based on six principles defined an administrative structure which can
characterize the majority of work organizations. These six principles are following:
(1) there are "fixed and official jurisdictional areas which are generally ordered by rules", (2)
organizations have a strict hierarchical system of authority, (3) administration is based on written
documents, known as the files, (4) management "presupposes thorough and expert training," (5)
bureaucratic activity is a full-time occupation, and (6) the management of the bureaucracy "follows
general rules, which are more or less stable, more or less exhaustive, and which can be learned'.
(Weber 1946 cited in Mansfield 1973, p. 477)
Mansfield (1973) states that, the second principle of strict hierarchical system of authority is the
most important for the organization and 'the rules of the bureaucracy not only legitimate the
power of a superordinate over a subordinate, they also delimit the extent of his authority' (p.
478).
According to Diefenbach and Sillince (2011), hierarchy can be understood as 'vertical formal
integration of official positions within one explicit organizational structure whereby each
position or office is under the control and supervision of a higher one' (p. 1517). The structure of
organizational hierarchy is a set of work positions and formal roles, which defined by system of
rules, orders and control.
Diefenbach and Sillince (2011) consider common types of hierarchical organizations:
1. Bureaucratic or orthodox organizations. It is a traditional type of organization where
subordinates are commanded and controlled by person owning the authority through system of
orders.
Malkov & Sobolev 24
2. Professional organizations. People accomplishing the common work in these organizations
have the same or similar professions.
3. Representative democratic organizations. They ' ep ese ts a comb at o of emp oyees’ d ect
participation in operational decision-making and indirect participation in strategic decision-
making via representatives' (Diefenbach & Sillince 2011, p. 1519).
4. Hybrid or postmodern organizations. These organizations use new management concepts such
as ‘ ea ma a eme t’, ‘bus ess p ocess e-e ee ’, the ‘ ea o a zat o ’ o
‘k ow ed e ma a eme t’ (D efe bach & S ce 2011, p. 1519).
5. Network organizations. There is a special center, which gives orders and makes decisions and
functional groups in this type of organization.
Table 2 gives the main characteristics of each type of organization.
Diefenbach and Sillince (2011) state that all types of organization are based on hierarchy.
Bureaucratic or orthodox, professional and representative democratic organizations use
hierarchical orders in their work. In addition, hierarchy of hybrid and network organizations are
expressed in the work process because they include different work teams or functional groups
who accomplish different projects or functions, which they get from superior or network
coordinator.
Table 2. Types of hierarchical organizations and their formal hierarchy (Diefenbach & Sillince
2011, p. 1520, Table 2)
Bureaucratic/orthodox organizations have the highest level of formal hierarchy. Hierarchy is
quite high in professional organizations too, but here the principle of seniority is equalized by the
principle of professional autonomy. According to the principle of seniority, more senior
members of organization place higher positions and manage junior colleagues (Diefenbach &
Sillince 2011, p. 1522). The principle of professional autonomy means that 'formal structures and
p ocesses a e espec a y mea t to suppo t p ofess o a s’ auto omy, fo examp e, se f-regulating
bodies such as intraorganizational committees, media for publishing and communicating the
profess o ’s deve opme ts' (D efe bach & S ce 2011, p. 1523). Fo ma h e a chy s qu te
high in hybrid organizations, less in representative democratic organizations, and extremely low
in network organizations.
Bureaucratic/orthodox
organization
Professionalorganization
Representativedemocratic
organization
Hybrid/postmodernorganization
Networkorganization
Mainconceptofthesystem
Bureaucracy,rules,managerialism
Professionalism,managerialism
Managerialism,representative(and
participative)decision-making
processes
Managerialism,projectsandteams
Autopoiesis,decentralizedco-
ordinationanddecisionmaking
Formalprincipleofhierarchical
order
Principleofrule-boundline
management
Principleofseniority,principle
ofprofessionalautonomy
Principleofformalhierarchical
representation
Principleofdirectandindirectline
management
Principleofautopoietic
structuresandprocesses
Formalhierarchical
ordervia
Officesatdifferentlevels,lineof
command-and-control,line
management
Rulesandorderoftheprofession,line
management
Linemanagement,committees
Linemanagement,formalprojects
andteams
Emergingformalfunctionsand
taskswithinthenetwork
Formallyhigherand
lowerrankedactors
Masterandservant,superiorand
subordinate
Seniorandjunior,professionaland
supportstaff,superiorandsubordinate
Representativesandrepresented,superiorandsubordinate
Superiorandsubordinate,leadersandmembersof
projectsorteams
Network-coordinator/facilitatorand
members
Malkov & Sobolev 25
Mansfield (1973) notes that management of large organizations can decentralize some of
decision making among organizational levels in order to provide control in it. This opinion
assumes negative relationship between bureaucracy and the centralization of decision-making in
organization. In other words, the larger the organization, the less extent of the centralization in it.
There are studies, conducted by Pugh et al. (1968), Blau and Schoenherr (1971), and Child
(1972) (Mansfield 1973), which prove this idea from practical point of view. They suppose that a
negative relationship between bureaucratization and centralization of decision-making is the
most predictable in large organizations. Top-managers in large organizations have a lot of
organizational work to do, so they can delegate the wright to make decisions to low levels of
management without loss the authority. On the contrary, the heads of small organizations tend to
centralize decision making in their hands. Thus, the studies conclude that 'the relationship
between bureaucratization and the cent a zat o of dec s o mak … te ds to be e at ve'
(Mansfield 1973, p. 487), and 'large bureaucratic organizations are much more likely to have
decentralized the loci of decision making than small nonbureaucratic organizations' (Mansfield
1973, p. 487).
3.2. Principles of management (H. Fayol)
Henri Fayol (1949) formulated 14 principles of management, which help to manage organization
more effectively. These principles were offered for industry organizations in the last century.
However, society is changing and going to the postindustrial type.
According to Rodrigues (2001), this type is characterized by ambiguity, requirement for fast
decision-making and globalization process, by fast growth of the service sector and increasing
knowledge. Hence, Fayol's principles are needed to get new interpretations in connection with
new trends in society. Rodrigues gives some interpretations of each principle, how it is perceived
then and now.
1. Division of work. Then in order to get more effective results, work process is divided in
several elements. Employees perform specific tasks. Now employees perform multiple tasks.
2. Authority and responsibilities. Then managers have the authority and responsibilities for it to
manage people, give orders and have a guarantee of its performance. Now work process includes
employee participation. Employees are empowered and get freedom to make decisions in work
groups.
3. Discipline. Then organizational rules control work relationships between manager and
subordinates. These rules guarantee the employees' performance. Now 'organizations rely more
heavily on informal, group peer pressure controls than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 882).
4. Unity of command. Then each employee has only one boss who gives orders to him. Now
employees have several managers, specialists in different groups, who give orders.
5. Unity of direction. Then 'there should be only one plan and one boss for each group of
activities having the same objective' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 882). Now an organization includes
several plans and bosses for each function.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. Then employees' interests in the
company, or group of employees, were not being more important than the company's interests.
Now organizations demonstrate 'more commitment to its employees than in the past' (Rodrigues
2001, p. 882).
7. Remuneration of personnel. Then reasonable rewards were given for work. Now payments
depend on work performance.
8. Centralization. Then 'a balance between centralization and decentralization' (Rodrigues 2001,
p. 883) was established. Now decision-making is realized throu h ‘”ad hoc ce te ”, which is
Malkov & Sobolev 26
defined by task relevant, specialized knowledge; centers of control, authority, and
communication are problem-specific and dependent on where the expertise to solve a problem
ests’ (Rod ues 2001, p. 883).
9. Scalar chain. Then hierarchical organizational structure of vertical communication between
the highest management level and the lowest positions was organized. It allows controlling
subordinates. Now 'organizations use a less-formalized, less-hierarchical, flatter decision-making
organizational structure than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 884).
10. Order. The ‘o a zat o 's mate a s shou d be the ht p ace at the ht t me, a d ts
emp oyees shou d be ass ed to the obs best su ted to them’ (Rod ues 2001, p. 884). Th s
principle provides control in organization. Now the principle is the same, but the aim is not an
internal control, but a coordination to get information about organization.
11. Equity. Then employees should be leaded in according of fairness and kindness. Now
organizations develop 'the sense of ownership' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 884), involving employees in
organizational process and sharing tasks with them.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Then organizations motivate employees to remain and rarely
train them. Now organizations often hire new employees and use ongoing training programs.
13. Initiative. Then 'organizations require managers who possess the ability to conceive new
ideas as well as the ability to implement them' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885). Now 'organizations rely
less on hierarchical elements and more on employees who think independently and take initiative
than in the past' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885).
14. Esprit de corps. Then 'the maintenance of high morale and unity among employees was
imperative' (Rodrigues 2001, p. 885). Now the maintenance of high morale and unity among
employees is not imperative.
Table 3 demonstrates differences in old and modern understandings of Fayol's principles.
3.3. Leadership style
The main task of the leader is to improve effective performance from employees. Hence, we
want to consider leadership styles from perspectives of the individual and organizational
efficiency.
3.3.1. Transactional leadership
According to Bass (1985), a transactional leader 'emerges as a result of transactions and
exchanges with group members' (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172). Transactional
leaders get authority among employees, influence on followers, and, hence, achieve working
results through system of rewards and punishments for performance tasks. They concentrate on
the task performance and don't pay attention team needs. Ruggieri & Abbate (2013) notes that
'the activity of leaders consists of implementing interpersonal transactions in which tasks,
expectations, and related awards are indicated and clarified' (p. 1172). Thus, employees consider
manager as a transactional leader and fulfill tasks in order to get rewards.
Giltinane (2013) supposes also that transactional leadership style can be used effectively in
situations when the time of task performance is strictly limited, because this approach to make
employees concentrated on fast and successful performance of tasks.
Horwitz et al. (2008, cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 36) categorize transactional leaders into three
types: 'contingent reward'; 'management by exception-active', when leaders influence on
followers before their behavior becomes falling short of organization requirements; and
'management by exception-passive', when leaders influence on followers after their behavior
becomes falling short of organization requirements.
Malkov & Sobolev 27
Table 3. The 14 principles of management: then and now (Rodrigues 2001, p. 881, Table 1)
Co t e t ewa d mea s that ‘followers receive incentives after they accomplish their tasks to
stimu ate fo owe s’ task mot vat o ’ (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139). Leaders who use this
method motivate followers because they set definite goals and define what employees can get
when they achieve them. According to Burke et al. (2006), transactional leaders using contingent
rewards can influence on employees' performance and work satisfaction from the positive side.
However, management by exception-active and exception-passive are less effective methods.
Management-by-exception method is 'the anticipation of mistakes and the enforcement of rules
that may prevent mistakes from happening' (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139).
3.3.2. Transformational leadership
Transformational leaders 'express a clear, compelling vision of the future, intellectually inspire
followers, identify individual differences and assist followers to develop their strengths' (Bass
2008 cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 37). Leader's vision focuses the staff on understanding and
performance work assignments. It helps the leader to inspire people, makes them aware of the
organization strategy. In terms of this concept the challenge for leader is to create own vision.
Further the leader should articulate the vision and motivate the staff through this vision. By
doing so, the leader provide conditions for further development of organization. As Bennis and
Nanus (2004) notes, 'leaders articulate and define what has previously remained implicit or
unsaid; then they invent images, metaphors, and models that provide a focus for new attention'
(p. 37).
Transformational leaders inspire employees to work, shape their values through clear vision and
understanding of situation, share with them common responsibilities and include employees in
decision-making process. According to Bass (1985), a transformational leader 'adapts to the
Principle Then Now
1 Specializationinworkers'jobdesign Generalizationinworkers'jobdesign
2 Managersareempowered Employeesareempowered
3 Formalizedcontrols Informal,peer-pressurecontrols
4 Subordinatesreporttoonlyoneboss Subordinatesreporttomultiplebosses
5 Functionshaveonlyoneplanandoneboss Functionshavemultipleplansandbosses
6 Employeesarecommittedtotheorganization Organizationiscommitedtoemployeesandviceversa
7 Reasonablepayrewardsystem Performance-basedrewardsystem
8 "Trickle-down''decisionmaking Taskrelevant,adhocdecisonmaking
9Hierarchical,formalizedcommunicationstructure10Internalinformationsystemforcontrolpurposes
Less-formalized,flattercommunicationstructureInternalinformationsystemforcoordinationpurposes
10 Internalinformationsystemforcontrolpurposes Internalinformationsystemforcoordinationpurposes
11 Commitmentobtainedthroughkindness Commitmentobtainedthrougha`senseofownership''
12 Trainemployeesandencouragethemtoremain On-goingemployeetraininganddevelopment
13 Managersconceiveandimplementnewideas Workersconceiveandimplementnewideas
14Maintaininghighmoraleamongworkersis
imperativeMaintaininghighmoraleamongworkersisnotas
imperative
Malkov & Sobolev 28
changes and instability of the situation and involves, motivates, and supports followers in a
manner consistent with the required transformations' (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172).
Transformational leadership can be characterized by the fou I’s: ' dealized influence,
inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation' (Breevaart et al.
2014, p. 140).
Idealized influence means leaders have the trust and support of their subordinates.
Transformational leadership is based on followers' trust, because its aim is a change (Giltinane
2013, p. 38). If followers trust in a leader's vision and support him, a leader can achieve results
and changes with his team more successfully.
Inspirational motivation means that transformational leaders transfer their vision of
organizational development and confidence success to fo owe s. They ‘communicate an
appea v s o of the futu e a d show co f de ce the fo owe s’ ab ty to co t bute to the
realization of th s v s o ’ (Seibert, Wang, & Courtright 2011 cited in Breevaart et al. 2014, p.
142).
Individual consideration means an individual approach of leaders to followers' needs. Leader
makes followers identifying their own value system with organizational vision and provides a
strong collaboration between leader and followers in achieving common organizational goals.
They aim on satisfying desired needs of subordinates in personal development, self-expression
and self-esteem.
Intellectual stimulation means an ability of leaders to stimulate employees for creating new
solutions in work. Leader should organize innovative learning process for organization,
including the following elements: 'reinterpretation of history', 'experimentation, 'analogous
organizations', 'analytical processes', 'training and education' (Bennis & Nanus 2004, pp. 182-
186). Rolfe (2011) stated about transformational leaders that 'leaders should be visible role
models and empower followers to become leaders' (cited in Giltinane 2013, p. 37). Such
followers have more motivation, inspiration and satisfaction from the work. This can be
explained by the assumption that leaders transmit in followers their own vision and aspiration to
achieve common goals. Followers feel own importance in organizational work process and tend
to develop their skills, to work better with a great pleasure.
It seems obvious that transformational leadership is more effective than transactional behavior.
Acco d to ass (1985), t a sact o a eade s 'mot vate the fo owe s to fu f the eade s’
expectations, while transformational leaders motivate their followers to perform beyond what is
expected of them' (cited in Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 139). Leaders can use both styles in different
situations but it's more efficiently to use more often transformational behavior.
3.3.3. Directive leadership
Directive leadership is 'leader behaviors that provide followers with specific guidance regarding
goals, means of achieving goals, and performance standards' (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p.
1374). In this case leaders actively use system of rewards and punishments for controlling
employee performance. Doing this, they stimulate people to work better. Hence, work
motivation is enhancing.
Indeed, the main task for directive leaders is to increase a work performance in organization.
Such leaders direct their followers to perform core tasks. They set goals for subordinates and
give them instructions described what they should do. They clarify goals and formulate specific
methods to achieve these goals. Directive leaders examine employees' performance constantly
and correct their work through time direction (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).
A study provided by Lorinkova et al. (2013) concludes that directive leadersh p sty e ‘increases
collective clarity about roles and responsibilities, facilitating performance at earlier stages of
teamwo k’ (cited in Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).
Malkov & Sobolev 29
D ect ve eade sh p a so ‘ mproves wo k u t co e task p of c e cy’ (Martin, Liao & Campbell
2013, p. 1374), but ‘decreases wo k u t p oact ve behav o s’ (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p.
1375).
Martin, Liao & Campbell differentiate directive leadership from transactional leadership because
directive leaders guide employees how to achieve goals in opposite with transactional leaders
who draw a great attention a result and a system of rewards and punishments which provide
achieving this result (Martin, Liao & Campbell 2013, p. 1374).
3.3.4. Empowering leadership
Empowering leadership is the approach by 'which leaders share power with employees by
providing additional responsibility and decision-making authority over work and resources as
well as the support needed to handle the additional responsibility effectively' (Martin, Liao &
Campbell 2013, p. 1375).
Empowering leadership is based on sharing responsibilities with followers (Mills & Ungson
2003). Empowering leaders delegate authority to followers and allow them to take part in
decision-making process. They give followers an opportunity to explore core tasks and find ways
to perform these tasks.
Thus, empowe eade sh p ‘increases wo k u t p oact ve behav o s’ (Martin, Liao &
Campbe 2013, p. 1376) a d ‘improves wo k u t co e task p of c e cy’ (Martin, Liao &
Campbell 2013, p. 1377).
Empowering leaders focus on employee behavior. They tend to cultivate self-confidence, self-
esteem, self-management, and communication skills in followers.
Bennis and Nanus (2004) define the following leader's actions: 1) to give the employees the
sense of significance of their work in organization, 2) to provide competence, i.e. constant
development on the job; 3) to establish organizational community; 4) to provide enjoyment from
the work process.
It's important to note that Martin, Liao & Campbell (2013) differentiate empowering leadership
from transformational leadership because transformat o a eade s emphas ze ‘cha sma, v s o ,
intellectual stimulation, and individual zed co s de at o of fo owe s’ (Martin, Liao &
Campbell 2013, p. 1375), and not all visionary leaders empower followers.
3.3.5. Charisma
ass (1985) states that ‘charisma is a subcomponent of t a sfo mat o a eade sh p’ (cited in
Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375). However, Antonakis et al. (2011) distinguish the
conception of charisma from transformational leadership. They suggest that the conception of
transformat o a sty e s b oade a d ‘includes means of influence predicated on the leader
having a developmental and empowering focus (e.g., individualized consideration) and on using
“ at o a ” f ue c mea s (e. ., te ectua st mu at o )’ (Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011,
p. 375). Hence, the influence of charisma developed in the perception of followers, who accept
the charisma of the leader.
Weber (1968) gave the first definition of charisma. He co s de ed cha sma as a ft ‘of the body
and spirit not access b e to eve ybody’ (Weber 1968, p. 19). House (1977) formulated the first
psychological theory of cha sma. He efe ed t to ‘leaders who by force of their personal
abilities are capable of having profound and ext ao d a y effects o fo owe s’ (p. 189). He
notes that because of such special effects, the followers are sure that leaders will give lots of
benefits and positive changes.
As a result of this belief, followe s of cha smat c eade s show ‘devotion and loyalty toward the
cause that the eade ep ese ts’ (Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375).
Antonakis and House (2002) suppose that charisma concerns
Malkov & Sobolev 30
leaders who use symbolic means to motivate followers ... and in whom followers can ex- press
their ideals. Charismatic leaders are viewed as strong and confident based on attributions that
followers make of these leaders. Followers respect and trust these leaders [who display] moral
conviction and are idealized and highly respected by followers. This perspective contrasts with the
“take-it-or-leave- t” radical perspective of revolutionary leaders. (p. 8)
Antonakis et al. (2011) offer the conception of organizational charisma, which is based on
interactions between the leader and followers. As a result of these relations the leader has got a
symbolic power. This power does ’t use reward and punishment system. It is based on ideology
and emotions. They suppose that charismatic leaders have the strong influence on followers, are
perceived as competent specialists, and, hence, produce followers' trust.
3.3.6. Leadership approaches
Farkas and Wetlaufer (1996) define 5 different approaches to leadership. Speaking about
approach, they mean,
which areas of corporate policy – for example, strategic planning, R&D, or recruiting – receive the
most attention, what kind of people and behaviors the CEO values in the organization, which
decisions the CEO makes personally or delegates, and how he or she spends each day. (Farkas &
Wetlaufer 1996, p. 111)
According to them, good leader adopt leadership approach, which best suits the needs of the
organization (Farkas & Wetlaufer 1996, p. 111).
1. The Strategy Approach
Leaders who use this approach tend to formulate and implement the long-term strategy in their
companies. They define ways in which their companies should be developed.
Such leaders make a lot of efforts to implement long-term strategy in organization (Farkas and
Wetlaufer 1996). They provide special researches and planning sessions, examine different parts
of their business, involve consultants, collect external information and then analyze collected
data. They d aw atte t o to custome s’ behav o a d eeds, a so to compet to s’ st ate y. They
spe d ‘80% of the t me to matte s exte a to the o a zat o 's ope at o s – customers,
competitors, technological advances, and market trends – as opposed to internal matters such as
h o co t o systems’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 111). It mea s that they de e ate da y
tasks to employees. This approach is applied in complex organizations in changing, risky
environment.
2. The Human-Assets Approach
Acco d to Fa kas a d Wet aufe (1996), the ma ob of th s k d of eade s s ‘to mpa t to
their organizations certain values, behaviors, and attitudes by closely managing the growth and
developme t of d v dua s’ (p. 112).
These leaders develop their employees through implementation major company values in every
emp oyee. I o de to do th s, they p ov de p ocedu es of ec u t , emp oyees’ t a , and
stuff motivation, rewarding programs. They pay attention face-to-face communication with
subordinates to know their personal matters. They believe that the best method to improve the
competition advantages is to give followers an opportunity to take part in decision-making,
launching new products and interaction with customers (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996, p. 115).
3. The Expertise Approach
Leade s who use th s app oach be eve that ‘the CEO's most mpo ta t espo s b ty s se ect
and disseminating within the corporation an area of expertise that will be a source of competitive
adva ta e’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112). They def e a d deve op a compet t ve
expe t se the o a zat o . They focus o p o ams a d p ocedu es ke ‘study ew
technological research, analyzing competitors' products, and meeting with engineers and
custome s’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112). They t y to h e emp oyees who possess a deep
knowledge in some area of an expertise.
Malkov & Sobolev 31
This approach is appropriate to organizations, which need to achieve success through creating
special competencies, making the sustainable advantage in compare with their rivals on the
market.
4. The Box Approach
A box s ‘a set of p ocedu a , f a c a , a d cu tu a co t o s to wh ch membe s of the
o a zat o must co fo m’ (Fa kas a d Wetlaufer 1996, p. 118). Leaders using this approach
think that in order to achieve success they need to create a consistent and safe experience for
custome s a d emp oyees. They be eve that they ca do t ‘by c eat , commu cat , a d
monitoring an explicit set of controls – financial, cultural, or both – that ensure uniform,
p ed ctab e behav o s a d expe e ces fo custome s a d emp oyees’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe
1996, p. 112).
Leaders spend a lot of time to generate detailed plans, procedures, explicit rules, and reward
systems. They design controls and track down the work of organization units in accordance with
these co t o s. They use ‘ te a ev ews a d exte a aud ts, emp oyee at sca es, st ct
po c es, a d f a c a epo ts’ (Fa kas a d Wetlaufer 1996, p. 119). They involve auditors,
organize managers meetings, and consider business reports.
Thus, this approach is usually used in regulated industries, demanding safety and clarity in work
of business units.
5. The Change Approach
Leaders tend ‘to c eate a e v o me t of co t ua e ve t o , eve f such a e v o me t
produces anxiety and confusion, leads to some strategic mistakes, and temporarily hurts financial
pe fo ma ce’ (Fa kas a d Wet aufe 1996, p. 112).
These leaders concentrate on the process of achieving changes. They motivate employees to
accept changes. They attempt to reinvent products and organizational processes, take risks
constantly. They use different forms of communication with employees, customers and
stakeholders like speeches, negotiations, and meetings (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996).
3.3.7. Diminisher/multiplier style
Wiseman and McKeown (2010) touch upon the problem of differences between leadership styles
and their impact on the organization. They explain that there are two types of leaders.
‘D m she s’ (Wiseman & McKeown 2010, p. 117) are leaders who decide everything
themselves, without any discussion with employees or guided by their opinion to a small degree.
D m she s ‘underutilize people and leave creativity a d ta e t o the tab e’ (Wiseman &
McKeow 2010, p. 117). ‘Mu t p e s’ (Wiseman & McKeown 2010, p. 117) are leaders who
discuss issues with their employees and consider their opinions. In fact, multiplier and
employees develop the problem solution process jointly; leader only controls the process of
discussion.
There are some significant differences between these leadership styles. The main characteristics
of both styles of leadership are following:
Diminishers:
1. Shut down emp oyees’ smarts
2. Stifle the flow of ideas
3. Are centralized in decision-making process
4. Consider themselves as most capable persons in organization. (Wiseman & McKeown 2010)
Multipliers:
1. Develop and use talents of their employees
Malkov & Sobolev 32
2. Create an intense productive environment that helps employees working and creating
3. Set directions for employees by asking questions
4. Cultivate debate among team members
5. Shift the responsibility for thinking to their employees and give an opportunity to make
mistakes. (Wiseman & McKeown 2010)
Thus, leaders who use diminisher style in their work cannot stimulate their followers to make
more effective results. On the contrary, if leader leads like a multiplier, he will get more efforts,
energy, and new ideas from team members.
Multipliers give a lot of work freedom their subordinates. First, they let other team members
thinking with their own deep knowledge, because any employee may possess special skills from
different areas that can help in his/her present work. Secondly, they give others an opportunity to
be successful. Thirdly, they left space for employees to contribute in common business. Effective
leaders must not be conceited. They should allow their employees to achieve results themselves.
(Wiseman & McKeown 2010)
It's obvious that the value of diminisher style shouldn't be ignored. In different situations the
eade s ca use d ffe e t sty es of eade sh p. oth sty es have the ow adva ta es. Mu t p e ’s
style is more appropriate for companies operating successfully, because they have enough
esou ces a d t me fo wo k expe me ts a d emp oyees’ m stakes. Th s sty e w be poss b e
for the top managers who need to get some new ideas and can use potential of their employees.
On the contrary, the diminisher leadership style will be more effective for new companies or
companies in crisis, which need fast and appropriate decisions of skillful leader.
3.3.8. Soft leadership
Rao (2013) supposes that soft leadership is 'an integrative, participative, relationship, and
behavioral leadership model adopting tools such as persuasion, negotiation, appreciation,
motivation, and collaboration to accomplish the tasks effectively' (p. 144). It focuses on human
personality and behavior. This style aims to transform personality of followers and to make
employees' behavior more effective. It stimulates the development of personal and professional
sides of employees.
Soft leadership is based on soft skills. Soft skills are personal qualities that reinforce human
interactions and work performance in organization. Robles (2012) identified the main 10 soft
sk s: ‘integrity, communication, courtesy, responsibility, social skills, positive attitude,
professionalism, flexib ty, teamwo k, a d wo k eth c’ (p. 453).
Soft leadership focuses on people. Soft leaders care for employees. They organize negotiations
between people, use team building and motivational methods; app ec ate fo owe s’ contribution
in the wo k p ocess. ‘The soft leaders believe in setting a personal example, empathy,
persuasion, e ot at o , a d asse t ve ess’ (Rao 2013, p. 145). Hence, they encourage people to
be more free and to experiment in work.
Thus, the pressure on followers is decreased. They feel less stress and escape conflicts in
organization.
Rao notes that soft leadership should be distinguished from transformational leadership, which
focuses o 4 Is such as ‘ dealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation,
and individualized co s de at o ’ (Breevaart et al. 2014, p. 140). On the contrary, soft leadership
is based on 11 Cs – ‘character, charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication,
compassion, commitment, consistency, consideration, and contribution to make a difference in
the ves of the pa t e s’ (Rao 2013, p. 144). Indeed, it seems difficult to possess all these
characteristics. Nevertheless, the true soft leader should have the most of them and make efforts
to develop others.
Malkov & Sobolev 33
Soft leadership should also be distinguished from transactional leadership, because soft leaders
focus on people in order to perform tasks and transactional leaders pay attention on transaction
of tasks (Rao 2013, p. 144).
3.3.9. Followership
We think that understanding of leadership theory is incomplete without a conception of
followership. Hersey and Bla cha d's (1969) su ested that ‘leaders should strike a balance
between their task- and people-oriented behaviors depending on the confidence and skill set of
the fo owe s’ (cited in Oc & Bashshur 2013, p. 920).
There are three approaches viewed leaders and their followers. Uhl-Bien et al. (2014) offer the
following three approaches:
1. Leader-centric approach
According to this approach, leaders are v ewed as ‘power-wielding actors who affect group and
o a zat o a outcomes’ (Yukl & Van Fleet 1992 cited in Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 84). Leaders
play a main role in achieving goals. They motivate and direct followers to perform tasks. They
influence on their behavior and attitudes. Followers are considered as subordinates who get
orders and carry out them without any resistance and doubt. Hence, they don't have performance
initiative.
2. Follower-centric approach
Followers have a significant role in orga zat o . Th s app oach v ews ‘leader emergence as
generated in the cognitive, attributional, and social de t ty p ocesses of fo owe s’ (Uhl-Bien et
al. 2014, p. 86).
3. Relational view
This app oach v ews eade sh p as ‘a mutual influence process among eade s a d fo owe s’
(Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 87).
Uhl-Bien et al. (2014) states that eade sh p s ‘a dynamic system involving leaders (or leading)
and followers (or fo ow ) te act to ethe ’ (p. 89). This conception includes two
understandings of followership: followership as a role and followership as a process.
A role-based followership approach views followership as roles, which employees are provided
in accordance with a formal or informal position in organization (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 89).
This approach focuses on followe s’ behavior and behavioral styles. It identifies how followers’
features, traits influence on effectiveness, attitudes and behavior of leader.
According to a constructio st app oach, fo owe sh p s ‘a relational interaction through which
leadership is co-created in combined acts of ead a d fo ow ’ (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 89).
Leadership and followership are co-created through work relational interactions between
followers and leader. In addition, Meindl (1995) argues that the effectiveness of leadership
depends on followers because eade sh p focuses o ‘the linkage between leaders and followers
as constructed the m ds of fo owe s’ (Meindl, 1995, p. 220).
Carste et a . (2010) otes that ‘followership adopts the follower as the primary focus and
explores how followership behaviors are related to organizational outcomes of interest (e.g.,
eade sh p, pe fo ma ce)’ (Carsten et al. 2010, p. 543).
According to Kelley (1988), effective followers should have the following qualities:
1. They manage themselves well.
2. They are committed to the organization and to a purpose, principle or, person outside
themselves.
3. They build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact.
4. They are courageous, honest, and credible. (p. 144)
Malkov & Sobolev 34
Kelley (1992) distinguishes two dimensions of effective followership behavior. The first
d me s o s ‘ depe de t c t ca th k ’ (cited in Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112). Followers
who critically think estimate and analyze situations, make independent judgments. According to
Blanchard et al. (2009), critical thinking can improve task performance through constant learning
process (p. 112).
The seco d d me s o s ‘act ve e a eme t’ (Kelly 1992 cited in Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112).
Followers who are act ve y e a ed ‘take initiative, assume ownership, and actively participate
pe fo m the ob’ (Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 112).
Blanchard et al. (2009) advise ma a e s ‘to ensure that their employees are actively engaged in
the obs’ (p. 128). They note that ‘active engagement is by far the stronger driver of the
relationship to comm tme t a d sat sfact o ’ (Blanchard et al. 2009, p. 128).
3.3.10. The dark side of leadership
In this chapter we attempt to view different aspects of leadership in organization, which are
relevant to our research focus. It seems obvious that organizational leadership can be a source of
positive and negative outcomes in organizations. Thus, we want to consider destructive nature of
leadership.
According to Padilla, Hogan and Kaiser (2007), the sense of destructive leadership relate to
'negative organizational outcomes, and certain processes are more likely than others to lead to
such outcomes' (p. 178). They formulate main features of destructive leadership:
1. Destructive leadership can not be totally destructive, because any leadership has both positive
and negative sides.
2. Destructive leadership is characterized by 'dominance, coercion, and manipulation rather than
influence, persuasion, and commitment' (Padilla, Hogan & Kaiser 2007, p. 179).
3. Destructive leadership is characterized by a selfish orientation. It focuses more on leader's
goals than needs of followers.
4. Destructive leaders, susceptible followers and conducive environments are responsible for
negative organizational results.
Kellerman (2007) formulates seven types of bad leadership: 'incompetent, rigid, intemperate,
callous, corrupt, insular, and evil' (p. 17).
Padilla, Hogan and Kaiser (2007) notes that destructive leadership should be viewed in the frame
of 'the toxic triangle' including destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive
environments (p. 176). According to them, destructive leadership is characterised by such factors
as negative charisma, personalized need for power, narcissism, negative life themes and an
ideology of hate. A need for power plays a special role in destructive character of leadership. As
Tost, Gino & Larrick (2013) states, a high sense of power reduces team communication and
diminishes performance. They argue that teams whose 'formal leader experiences a high
subjective sense of power' (Tost, Gino & Larrick 2013, p. 1468) demonstrate lower levels of
communication openness and work performance than teams whose formal leader possesses a
neutral sense of power.
Susceptible followers contribute in the appearance of destructive leadership. They are
conformers or colluders. Conformers submit to destructive leaders and accept their authority.
Their behavior is based on basic needs, negative self-evaluations, and psychological immaturity.
Colluders support the destructive leaders and take part in their activity. Their behavior is based
on ambitions, selfishness and the destructive leaders' values and beliefs. (Padilla, Hogan &
Kaiser 2007)
Malkov & Sobolev 35
Finally, the conducive environment facilitate development destructive leadership in
organizations. This environment appears in unstable organizations, in which there are no proper
control system of checks and balances on power, there are no strong cultural values.
Malkov & Sobolev 36
4. Leade sh p the A my
In this section of our thesis we would like to explore the nature of military leadership, the
relevance of military leadership and highlight main features, which is inherent to this type of
leadership.
This part of our thesis is very important, because in this section we want to show why we believe
that military leadership is important for society. In our opinion, military leadership today is very
important for two main aspects:
1. Today the army is a modern organization and an essential part of society, whose
employees after the service integrate into society and start career in a civil sphere;
2. The tense political and economic situation in the world, which requires the intervention
of the military in the resolution of arising crises a d combat act o s. ‘Their primary
purpose is to project or employ force under the direction of nation states to defend their
peoples o the hts a d te ests’ (Hannah 2010, p. 6).
4.1. The Army as a Contemporary Organization
‘Today’s m ta y eade s, mo e so tha po t ca eade s a d co po ate execut ves, face
ove whe m vo at ty, u ce ta ty, comp ex ty, a d amb u ty’ (Lau e ce 2010, p. 490). This
quote is very accurately highlights the importance of military leadership in our time. As modern
world with each passing year is becoming more and more uncertain, dynamic and complex,
hence, in such conditions for any organization, especially for the Army it is very important to
have the ability not only survive in these difficult realities, but also to accomplish perform tasks.
‘U ke ma y othe ove me ta o a zat o s, the m ta y must co t uous y p epa e fo
su p se a d da e ’ ( e et 2009, p. 328).
The call of duty obliges military leaders often to be in situations, which require an ability to
analyze the vast amounts of information, an ability to instantly navigate in the current situation
and to make correct management decisions, which may even effect on the lives of people. And
the matter is not only that the military officers take a part in the combat actions, but the fact that
‘ iven changes in the global political landscape and associated changes in both civilian and
military organizations led to the fact that the army become a unique, huge and diverse,
o a zat o that p ays a key o e both the at o a d the wo d’ (La sso 2006, p. 70).
In order to understand the level of skills and complexity of managing people in the army, we
wou d ke to b the Ame ca a my as a examp e. ‘I te ms of s ze, the umbe of peop e
the military is huge. In the U.S. alone, there are 1.37 million military men and women in
u fo m’ (Wo 2003 p. 659).
Speaking about money implementation in the military sphere, we would like to say that ‘ n 2010
the US Army spent 79,1 billion dollars on the development and purchase of modern technical
equ pme t’ (Roma ov 2011 p. 75), fo compa so , the ‘bud et of the Russian Army in 2013
was 90,7 b o do a s’ (Kokosh 2010, p. 40). Based on these data, we can conclude that
military leaders manage a large number of subordinates, concurrently use high technologies in
casual activity. Today, any modern army has equipped with a huge number of computers,
sate tes, a d othe tech ca dev ces. ‘O e cou d a ue that today’s m ta y cha e e s o
mo e comp ex tha that of the 1970s a d 1980s’ (Ha p 2010, p. 482).
By this reason, the army is a high-tech organization, which prepares their own high-qualified
specialists who are able to apply their skills and experience gained during the service at work in
civil organizations. The army and the military leadership have involved in continuous process of
self-improvement in order to fully meet the objectives and requirements set in the 21st century.
Malkov & Sobolev 37
‘M ta y o a zat o s have become c eas y k ow ed e-centric, not only sharing
knowledge with citizens, but often providing the energy, morale, excitement and discipline that
e cou a e the c eat o a d app cat o of k ow ed e’ ( e et 2009, p. 314).
4.1.1. Combat Actions
The archeologists have found the remains of ancient people with the tips of arrows and swords;
this idea means that mankind has always struggling and constantly led wars for power, resources
and superiority. If we return in modern times, we can see that the number of military conflicts, in
comparison with the past, has grown significantly, over the period from 1990 to 2010, 51
military conflicts occurred in human history throughout our planet. The largest and most famous
wars are presented in Table 4.
y a a yz th s fo mat o , we ca co c ude that the ‘ o e of the m ta y wo d affa s has
ece t y expa ded’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). Ma y people and experts believed that the role of the
army and military leadership after collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in
the solution of geopolitical and economic conflicts in the world will be reduced, but the war in
Iraq, antiterrorist operation in Afghanistan and the North Caucasus clearly prove that, as well as
20 years ago, the Army remains one of the most important elements in holding of national
policies.
Table 4. Significant warfares in the world history from 1990 till 2010 (source: made by the
authors)
Despite the emergence and using in the army super computers, modern systems for the exchange
of operational information, and other complex gadgets, the conduct of hostilities is still the
responsibility of officers and so d e s. ‘The st eets of os a, the mou ta s of Af ha sta , a d
the dese ts of I aq equ e ‘‘boots o the ou d’’ to ach eve v cto y’ (Ko d tz 2007, p. 26).
That’s why the m ta y comma d does ’t e y o p o amme s o ma a e s, they give a
significant role in achieving goal process to leaders. Thus, leadership was and always will
remain a key aspect in the preparation and training of the off ce s. ‘Lo befo e eade sh p
became a topic of discussion in the corporate, academic, or even public realm, militaries have
bee e amo ed by eade sh p (e. ., Su Tzu, 500 C)’ (Wo 2003, p. 660).
Timeperiod Nameofwarfare
1991 WarinPersianGulf
1992-1995 BosnianWar
1994-1996 FirstChechenWar
1999 CombatNATOoperationagainstYugoslavia
1999-2009 SecondChechenWar
2001 BeginningthewarinAfghanistan
2003-2011 IraqWar
2008 WarinSouthOssetia
Malkov & Sobolev 38
4.2. The Nature of Military Leadership
Military leadership is a specific type of activity, presenting highest requirements for the
motivational, emotional and intellectual spheres of the character of military leader. The United
States A my def es eade sh p as ‘the process of influencing people by providing purpose,
direction, and motivation while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the
organizatio ’ (Department of the Army 2006, pp. 1–2). The similar definition of leadership also
has the United States Air Force (USAF): ‘the a t a d sc e ce of f ue c a d d ect peop e
to accomplish the assigned missio ’ (Department of the Air Force 2006, p.1). In these two
definitions we can quite clearly highlight two important elements, which are inherent to the
leadership process; it is the mission and the people who should perform the delivered tasks.
‘The e s a c ea de eat o of powe ac oss h e a chical levels and clear prescriptions about
how eade s a d subo d ates a e expected to te act’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). The essence of
military leadership is formally enshrined in the military Charters, which systematize and regulate
relations between office s a d subo d ates. ‘I a m ta y e v o me t, th s have to be do e,
but leadership is not just getting things done, but getting them done in the way in which the
eade wa ts them do e’ (Thompso 2011, p. 97).
As we mentioned before, the army and military leadership have attended in the process of
improvement, changes has not bypassed the process of mutual relations and making orders
between managers and subordinates. Particular importance in modern conditions has acquired
the evolving relationships betwee the off ce s a d so d e s. ‘The 2006 Quad e a Defe se
Rev ew p oc a med that the U.S. was fo a “ o wa ” that wou d dema d t a sfo mat o ,
coope at ve e at o sh ps o pa t e sh ps, a d cu tu a u de sta d ’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 490).
Due to the fact that today the army solves a much more complex task than it was 20 or 30 years
ago, the military leaders must fully explain to subordinate the essence of the task before
beginning of the operation in order to minimize possible losses and to establish normal relations
with his subordinates. The military leaders and their subordinates very often have to act in
conditions of dangerous environment performing certain kinds of job. According to Campbell
(2010), we can define dangerous environments as those in which leaders or their followers are
personally faced with highly dynamic and unpredictable situations and where the outcomes of
leadership may result in severe physical or psychological injury (or death) to unit members (p.
3). In our opinion, in such situations, it is especially important to have feelings of mutual trust
between the m ta y eade a d h s subo d ates. ‘T ust was a so a ce t a facto a seco d
defining characteristic of leading in the Viet am co text’ (Campbe 2010, p. 8).
Realities of the new century, the development of the Armed Forces, the practical experience of
warfare in local armed conflicts, the implementation of peacekeeping operations by the Armed
Forces testify on their accomplishment of specific tasks related to the using not large-scale
capabilities but small units, groups and teams too. As example of conducting such operations a
m ta y ope at o u de the code ame ‘Red w s’ can be. It was conducted by the U.S. army
on 28th
of June in 2005 in Afghanistan. On the basis of memoirs of participants of this operation
in 2014 film director Peter Berg shot the movie a d ca ed t ‘Lo e Su v vo ’.
In this film, all interested readers can see an example of using military leadership in the
co d t o s of mode wa fa e. ‘Today’s batt ef e d dema ds adaptab e, f ex b e, s tuat o a , a d
participative leadership styles — a ta o de deed’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 493). In this context, we
are talking about so-ca ed ‘p a mat c sty e of eade sh p’. ‘P a mat c eade sh p vo ves
developing a plan and taking action based on careful observation and analysis of the unique
s tuat o ’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 493). In the process of the execution of service duties, as in the
army and at work in civil organization, the officer often needs quickly and qualitatively to make
decisions of administrative character and maintain a healthy moral and psychological condition
Malkov & Sobolev 39
of their subordinates. Between the officer and his subordinates should be open and trust
relationship, based on mutual assistance and respect to each other, especially in the combat zone.
Only in this case the m ta y u t s ab e to pe fo m the task. ‘Today’s eade s a e ca ed upo to
engage socially across cultures – to build trust, create alliances, read intentions, and influence
a d u de sta d peop e a d the mot vat o s’ (Lau e ce 2011, p. 491).
4.3. Features of Military Leadership
‘It s easo ab e to assume that most of soc ety e a ds the m ta y off ce as a eade ’
(Thompson 2011, p. 97). In this section we talk about features of military leadership, which are
he e t fo a my du the p epa at o of futu e m ta y eade s. ‘The most mpo ta t th to
understand is that every member of the military is trained to be a leader and is expected to be
o e’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). For some items in this section we use the survey to confirm our ideas.
This survey was conducted among 200 respondents in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The aim of this study was to give a description of military leadership, to highlight
personal characteristics, which are inherent to military leaders and express the opinion of the
respondents about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of military leadership in general. We
found the data about this study at the science magazine ‘International Journal of Academic
Research in Business and Social Sciences’. We a so wa t to adm t that all participants of this
survey took part in combat actions.
4.3.1. Training of the Military Leaders
‘Remembe , the m ta y does ’t h e ma a e s m dca ee fo ope at o a obs. It deve ops
them f om e t y eve up’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). In the process of preparing future leaders, the
army always accustomed to rely on their own resources and opportunities. This is largely due to
the fact that ‘the vast ma o ty of the wo d‘s p ofess o a m ta es a e c osed systems, that
the e s o p ov s o fo ate a e t y to the p ofess o ’ (Ha ah 2010, p. 7).
With this purpose modern armies have a developed network of universities and academies for
training of future specialists for all armed forces. As an example, we would like to show the
American system of training future officers and military leaders. Currently, the United States
‘has 21 educat o a st tut o s’ (Huffma 2008, p. 257) fo t a of m ta y spec a sts. It
should also be noted that, after graduation, every student receives a bachelor's, masters or
doctorate degree, which allows him or her later, without any problems, to get a job in civil
organization. Among the most famous higher educational institutions we can note the Academy
of Land forces (West point, New York), the joint command and staff College of the national
defense (Norfolk, Virginia) and the Center of special warfare of J.F. Kennedy (Fort Bragg, North
Ca o a). ‘Eve yo e s expected to ead a d fo ow as the team a d s tuat o equ e. Natu a y,
some individuals are more skilled, but everyone must acquire and demonstrate leadership
compete ce’ (Wh te 2014, p. 11). In the preparing of future military leader, the army has always
focused on the development of leadership skills among future officers, by formal education,
operational assignments and self-deve opme t. ‘Fo examp e, off ce s the U.S. A my ca
expect to spend 3 years of a 20-year career in Army schools developing the leader competencies
a d sk s eeded fo the ext eve of eade sh p’ (Wo 2003, p. 660). Also we would like to
note the fact that the military officer should be a leader. Leader must make decisions, no matter
whether he wants to do it or not. This fact is caused by the presence in the army special military
statute, which is very clearly delineates all authority and responsibility of the military leaders.
‘Most m ta y o a zat o s have a h h y st uctu ed bu eauc acy’ (Thompso 2011, p. 98).
4.3.2. Up or Out policy
Any leader in the army begins his or her career from the lowest rank and gradually moves up on
the ca ee adde . ‘T a eade s s a ecess ty, a d the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy
Malkov & Sobolev 40
whe e fa u e to be p omoted at ce ta t mes mea s you must eave the o a zat o ’ (Wh te
2014, p. 11). Such a promotion system allows gaining high-class professionals who have a whole
path of career development, with the necessary number of skills and competencies, leader who
knows system from the inside. In the case, if the military leader has no desire to practice and to
use their leadership skills, he eaves the se v ce. ‘Th s s se ous: o eade sh p, o ca ee ’ (Wh te
2014, p. 11).
4.3.3. Dangerous Environment
The activities of the military leaders, in varying degrees, are associated with the risk for life,
because they often have to perform tasks be a combat a ea. ‘The m ta y cu tu e c eates a
ethos where acts of extraordinary bravery are considered part of the job. Though this could lead
to dysfu ct o a “macho” behav o ’ o a zat o ’ (Wh te 2014, p. 12). By this reason, military
leaders have necessary combat training and they are able to act in extreme situations. In order to
understand how the military leaders operate in extreme situation, we propose to get acquainted
with the three-step guidance given by the lecturer of the Department of Behavioral Sciences and
the Leadership Academy of West Po t Co o e Do a d Campbe . ‘Leade sh p the da e ous,
ambiguous context of firefighting revolved around three linked sensemaking processes,
involving framing, heedful interrelating, and adjust ’ (Campbe 2010, p. 5). In our
understanding framing processes mean a number of specific actions that are using by the officers
in order to understand what is currently important and what is not. This step allows the military
leaders to reduce uncertainty in the decision-making process and choose the optimal way out of
specific situation. Heedful interrelating is necessary for all participants because in this step they
are able to evaluate risks and hazards, and to take collective action, leading to the salvation.
Adjusting processes make the leader of the group to adapt for the situation and to use only the
necessary personal qualities that will allow surviving. ‘M ta y eade s a e deve oped a d
educated to deal with stressful, unpredictable situations with a potential for having the worst
poss b e outcomes’ ( e et 2009, p. 317). This kind of experience builds the capacity to handle
with stress, work with people, develop strategies, and deal with the unknown.
As we mentioned earlier, ext eme co d t o s fo the m ta y eade s a e pa t of the wo k, that’s
why ‘ma a th s process is also critical, as understanding is facilitated by action, but action
affects events and can make things worse’ (Weick 1996, p. 306).
In addition to this model, we should devote a special attention for sense-making process when
the m ta y eade s et ext eme s tuat o s. ‘Resea ch a so su ests that eade s p ay a key o e
in d v dua s’ ab ty to make se se out of dy am c a d ext eme co texts’ (Ha nah 2010, p. 22).
When individuals are faced with something dangerous and unknown, they are trying to resolve
the situation or try to find meaning of what is happening. Sense-giving process during combat
action is critical because organization members requ e a se se of mea to ‘get their bearings
a d the c eate fu e , mo e accu ate v ews of what s happe a d what the opt o s a e‖’
(Weick 1988, p. 310). In the context of this situation, the military leaders must act as sense-
givers in order to train their employees properly and efficiently to act in such situations and try to
avo d these m stakes the futu e. ‘Se se-making, however is perhaps most critical during
extreme events such as combat, when individuals face novel, dynamic, and ill-defined events’
(Hannah 2010, p. 22). At the end of this part we want to give the statistical data, which was
obtained during the research conducted among 200 respondents in the armed Forces of Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
Malkov & Sobolev 41
Table 5. Descriptive results for military environment (Zukic 2013, p. 714, Table 8). Mean is an
average value of the respondents answers.
Based on Table 5, we can conclude that the respondents agree with the statement that in extreme
conditions subordinates should be able trust to their leader and the environment in the military is
trustworthy. Moreover, respondents also agree that there is a very complex environment in the
military and there is a well-developed ethical atmosphere in the army.
4.3.4. Moral core of the Military Leaders
In preparation of future military leaders the army pays special attention to the development of
high moral character of the officers. ‘Va ues such as se f-discipline, honesty, integrity, honor and
trust apply to success in the military just as much as they do to success in other government
o a zat o s a d p vate dust y’ ( e et 2009, p. 328). In order to understand how the
military instills a high value to future military leaders, we present the model of Lawrence
Kohlberg's (1981). We have chosen this model because it is often cited as an example in a large
number of scientific articles devoted for the subject of military leadership, for instance Kelley
(2013) and Bennet (2009). Law e ce Koh be 's s a ‘american psychologist, specialist in the
f e d of deve opme ta psycho o y’ (Ke y 2013, p. 123). Also, he is one of the founders of the
theory of cognitivism, including the development theory of morality. According to Kohlberg, the
moral development is hierarchical, with each subsequent stage of six stages reorganizing and
integrating the preceding one and consequently providing a comprehensive basis for moral
decisions (Kohlberg, 1981; see also Figure 2). It should be noted that the average speed of
passing through all phases is calculated, but the speed of each individual depends on its
experience and ability to learn.
In the first phase sequence is entirely based on the penalties for improper performance of the task
and avoiding punishment (Bennet 2009). At the second stage individual acts are performed to
satisfy personal needs. At the third stage interpersonal interaction happened, individuals try to
get approval for their actions from the side of their colleagues. In the fourth stage of this model,
the individual is not trying to find affirmation in the eyes of other people and they want to
complete the task, it is the duty for them. The fifth and sixth stage is a discussion, where
individuals begin understanding abstract moral principles and considering each situation
differently (Bennet 2009). Here, an individual develops their own rules and principles for good
decision-making and behavior.
Also at last two stages individuals becomes more flexible; they become aware of rules of
conduct and the need to protect people from possible threats. In particular at the fifth stage the
person is become aware of the contradictions between different moral beliefs and shapes (Kelly
2013). The sixth stage is the highest stage because person forms his own moral principles that
are followed regardless of the c cumsta ces. ‘Th s mo a code s above a y aw a d pub c
a eeme t’ (Ke y 2013, p.126).
Military Enviroment Mean
There is a very complex environment in the military 5,83
Everybody trusts his leader in the military 5
There is a well-developed ethical atmosphere in the army 5,56
The environment in the military is trustworthy 5,42
Malkov & Sobolev 42
We can note that during the service the military leader begins to perceive values that were
incorporated for him during the training and service, as a guide to actions or attitudes. The core
values of the organization are beginning to be very closely connected with the personality of the
leader, the mission and function of the organization, becoming the above personal desires of
man. This is particularly true in the military setting, where every person is expected to live and
p act ce the co e va ues of the se v ce. ‘Fo examp e, the US Ma e Co ps’ co e va ues a e
ho o , cou a e a d comm tme t, a d the motto Sempe F mea s ‘‘a ways fa thfu ’’’ ( e et
2009, p.318).
4.3.5. Key traits in character of the Military Leaders
This section is very important because it is directly linked with several issues in our research
with the officers of the Russian army and also is necessary for having full and clear presentation
of the military leaders. As a source of information in this case, we will use survey, which was
conducted with 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the official
scientific materials written by representatives of the British air force.
To begin we would like to highlight the main characteristics of military leaders.
F u e 2. Leve s of k ow ed e comp ehe s o e at ve to Koh be ’s s x sta es of mo a
development (Bennet 2009, p. 319, Table 2)
In accordance with the results of Table 6, we can conclude that the respondents believe that the
military leaders are charismatic, conscientiousness, suitable for leadership, agreeable,
extroversive, stereotyped, situational aware, can easily understand the psyche of their colleagues,
LEVELS OF
KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION
INTELLIGENCE
BALANCE;
SETTING AND
ACHIEVING
GOALS
ANTICIPATION OF
THE FUTURE
CONCEPTUAL
BASIS; THINKING
IN ABSTRACT
MEANING
SYSTEMS:
BOUNDARIES,
CAUSAL
RELATIONSHIPS
UNDERSTANDING INTERACTION
SENSE-MAKINGWHAT’S IN IT
FOR ME ?
INFORMATION
ACTION
IMMEDIATE
CAUSE & EFFECT
RESPONSE
KOHLBERG’S LEVELS
OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
POWER OF
AUTHORITY,
AVOID
PUNISHMENT
SATISFYING
PERSONAL
NEEDS
INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS;
PLEASING OTHERS
DOING ONE’S
DUTY; INWARD;
FOR OWN SAKE
POSTCONVENTION
AL REASONING;
ABSTRACT;
FLEXIBILITY;
RELATIVISM IN
RULES
PERSONAL
COMMITMENT;
OWN DEALS
SOMEWHAT
INDEPENDENT OF
OTHERS
Malkov & Sobolev 43
loyal to their organizations, motivate, managerially more competent, decisive, personally
sacrificed to their organizations and tasks-oriented. The result also showed that respondents
agree that military leaders are open for the employees, attained with the organizational goals and
easily generate solutions for specific occasions. They also totally agree that the military leaders
are more honest.
To give a rough assessment of benefits that arise in the process of military leadership, we offer
readers to get acquainted with the data presented in Table 7. From this table, it is possible to
consider that respondents definitely agree on statements that: they received a lot of experience,
enhanced their managerial abilities, and increased their leadership success and efficiency from
the military service and military leadership. Consequently, some of them agree that they
increased their leadership effectiveness by military.
Table 6. Descriptive results for characteristics of military leaders (Zukic 2013, p. 713, Table 7).
Mean is an average value of the respondents answers.
Table 7. Descriptive results for military leadership benefits (Zukic 2013, p. 712, Table 6). Mean
is an average value of the respondents answers.
According to Thompson (2012), leadership qualities can be structured into 3 main areas:
'approach to people', 'approach to task', and 'individual orientation' (p. 100). The scheme of
correlation of areas you can see on Figure 3.
Characterist ics of Military Leaders Mean
Military leaders are more charismatic 5,8
Military leaders are more conscientiousness 5,93
Military leaders are more agreeable 5,59
Military leaders are more tasks-oriented 5,6
Military leaders are more honest 6,58
Military leaders are more situational aware 5,64
Military leaders can easily generate solutions for specific occasions 5,43
Military leaders are more decisive 6,01
Military leaders are more motivative 5,79
Military leaders are more suitable for leadership 6,03
Military leaders are more attained with the organizational goals 5,45
Military Leadership Benefits Mean
I gained a lot of experience from military leadership 6,2
I enhanced my managerial abilities by the help of military leadership 6,34
My leadership success has increased by military 6,14
My leadership efficiency has increased by military leadership 5,88
My leadership effectiveness has increased by military 5,2
Malkov & Sobolev 44
Figure 3. Proposed summary of military Off ce ’s Pe so a Qua t es (Thompso 2012, p. 100,
Figure 1)
In addition to these schemes and tables we would like to mention the study, which was
conducted by M. Bailey, Directorate of Recruiting and Selection Royal Air Force. This specialist
took military doctrine of the US ARMY, the ROYAL AIR FORCE COLLEGE, the
CANADIAN ARMED FORCES, the US MARINE CORPS as the basis for his research and
identified main personal characteristics that are inherent to the military leaders from this
organizations (see Table 8).
Table 8. Leadership qualities (Thompson, p. 99, Table 1)
Based on the research conducted among 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina and research of R. Thompson (Table 6, Table 7, Table 8) we can highlight the most
frequently mentioned traits of the military leaders, such as Justice, Confident, Honesty, Initiative,
Decisiveness, Courage and Bearing.
Malkov & Sobolev 45
After analysis of the obtained information, we would like to highlight our definition of military
leadership and the military leader in the modern army.
We can define leadership in the army, as the development process of individual and collective
potential of human resources required for the successful and effective implementation of the
goal.
The leader in the army is a person who voluntarily has devoted his life to the service in the army,
possesses necessary leadership skills, desire to work and can find a common language with his or
her peers, also has a high moral and psychological potential to perform his or her professional
duties for the benefit of homeland.
4.3.6. Toxic Leadership in the Army
Negative leadership sometimes happened in every kind organization. According to Aubrey
(2012), ‘ egative leadership generally leaves people and organizations in a worse condition than
when the leader follower – e at o sh p sta ted’ (p. 3). Logically, we can assume that this kind of
leadership can be even in the army. One of the most famous form negative leadership is toxic
leadership. The colonel of the US Army Stephen Elle in his research p o ect ‘ eak the tox c
leadership paradi m the U.S. A my’ def es tox c eade sh p as a ‘comb at o of se f-
centered attitudes, motivations, and behaviors that have adverse effects on subordinates, the
o a zat o , a d m ss o pe fo ma ce’ (2012, p. 15). In the same paper Elle states that ‘tox c
leaders as commanders who put their own needs first, micro-managed subordinates, behaved in a
mean spirited manner or displayed poo dec s o mak ’ (2012, p.14).
In the army unlike civil organizations it is very important to recognize toxic leaders, because the
army is characterized by a high level of authoritarianism and the concentration a large number of
power in hands of one person who has the legal power to give binding orders to subordinates.
‘Fo sta ce, eute a t the a my ca comma d a compa y of 100 peop e’ (Reed 2014, p. 8).
According to Reed (2014), there are three key elements to define the syndrome of toxic
leadership in the army:
1. An apparent lack of concern for the wellbeing of subordinates.
2. A personality or interpersonal technique that negatively affects organizational climate.
3. A conviction by subordinates that the leader is motivated primarily by self-interest. (p.67)
In accordance with Box (2012) ‘the first principal behavioral trait of a toxic military leader is
micro-management invadi the p vacy of othe s’ (p. 6). Toxic leaders are more interested in
personal life of subordinates, than in moving the organization forward. This types of leaders is
constantly listen phone callings or read mail of their soldiers and believe that it is their right to
monitor or invade the privacy of othe s. ‘The tox c eade has o e a d fo the p ope ty,
fee s, d ty, o p vacy of othe s’ ( ox 2012, p. 6).
Also we would like to note that toxic leaders in the a my do ’t ke to hea othe opinions, they
do ’t ke bad ews, a d they a e usua y volved in some type of unethical or immoral activity
including satisfying own self-interests. These types of eade s do ’t wa t ste the peop e
because they k ow t a . Tox c eade s do ’t make a y f d s f om m stakes. A so these
leaders are not ope to feedback. ‘W thout act ve ste a d behav a eth ca ma e ,
the toxic leader creates a climate and culture of dysfunction and negativity throughout the
o a zat o ’ ( ox 2012, p. 8).
Malkov & Sobolev 46
Toxic leaders are highly competitive. They want to be at the top of the career ladder, even if it
offends subordinates below them. From the toxic leader’s po t of v ew, all other people are less
rapid, less effective and competent.
As a conclusion of this part, we would like to point the main feature of toxic leadership in the
a my. ‘Th s may ach eve esu ts the sho t te m, but o es the othe eade compete cy
cate o es of eads a d deve ops’ (ADP 6-22 2012, p.3). The military service for this kind of
leaders is possibility to gain regular titles and ca ee p omot o , they do ’t ca e about so d e s
and improving their skills and qualities.
Malkov & Sobolev 47
5. A a yz Ou F d s
In this part of our thesis, we conduct the analysis of empirical information, which we had
obtained during interviews with eight former officers of the Russian Army and law enforcement
structures who are experts in the field of military leadership.
We believe that it will be interested for our readers to look a brief biography of participants in
our study and you can see a full list of people accepted to help us and take part in our study
below:
1. Sergei Ermakov was born in 1974. He graduated from the military high school and was
promoted to junior lieutenant. Later he got Ph.D. degree during the military service.
Sergei Ermakov was serving in the army of aerospace defense. He finished his military
service in 2012 with the rank of colonel because he decided to retire because of his own
will in connection with personal and family circumstances. He had to choose between
family interests and the future career in the army. He had chosen the first. The
interviewee explains that the military service especially at chief position requires
maximum return of physical and emotional resources and in this case a military man has
no time for private life and family. But fortunately he founded a good place of working
where he has used his life experience and special skills that had been acquired during the
military service. Currently he works at position of the Dean of the research faculty of the
graduate and postgraduate study in the North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential
Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.
2. Natalia Petrova was born in 17.09.1975. Being a student, she entered at the service of the
military prosecutor of the Russian Federation in 1995. In 1999, after reform of the
military prosecutor's office, she was in rank of a senior inspector. She left the military
service and went to work in the judicial system. Natalia Petrova worked in the judicial
system until 2007 and then decided to leave the service. At the moment of dismissal, she
was in the position of captain of justice. Natalia explains that the main reason for the
dismissal from the service was family circumstances; between the family and the future
career she had chosen the family. But practical knowledge, which had been acquired
during the service, is useful for her at work in commercial organizations. Now Natalia is
the owner of her own law firm, where she uses skills and knowledge obtained in the
course of the military and the judicial services. The interview explains the woman view at
the military leadership, because Natalia assure that woman should not go into the Army,
it is not necessary. The woman has its own, well-defined function to give birth to
children, to bring up children, to be engaged in motherhood. The woman should be
feminine.
3. Dmitry Napreev was born in 15.09.1981. After graduating from law school in 2003 he
entered in the service of the Investigation Committee of the Russian Federation on a post
of the inspector. As a result of personal qualities and excellent performance in 2007
Dmitry became the Deputy Head of investigation Department, and later the head of
investigatory Department. In 2011, he decided to try himself at work in civil
organizations. At the time of dismissal from the service Dmitry was in the rank of major
of justice. The main reason for his departure was a desire to change narrowly criminal
specifics of his work and to develop further as a specialist and try himself on other
professional fields. Currently he works as the head of the security department in the
North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and
Public Administration. Also he is engaged in teaching process in this Institute at the post
of senior lecturer in criminal law, where he widely use practical experience and
knowledge that had been acquired during the service.
Malkov & Sobolev 48
4. Ravil Kamalov was born in 18.10.1981. In 2003 Ravil graduated from the North-West
Academy of Public Administration and then decided go into the military service in the
Federal Protection Service of the Russian Federation, where he received the rank of
sergeant. After demobilization in 2004, he decided to start working in the judicial system
of the Russian Federation and got a job in the Smolninsky Federal Court. Personal
leadership qualities allowed Ravil to become an assistant judge in criminal cases in 2006
and after 2 years of the service he became the head of the Department of criminal cases.
In 2011, being in the rank of major of justice of the Russian Federation, Ravil decided to
leave the service. The main reasons were quite low wage for professionals of such level
and unwillingness for further career development. Ravil said about this event in his life
the following words: ‘I ca say that I have eached the career ceiling and maybe I was
bored from the service’. Currently he works as the chief of the audit department in the
North-West Institute of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and
Public Administration.
5. Vladimir Petrov is a chief of the IT department in the trade organization. He was born in
1969. He graduated from the military high school, was promoted to junior lieutenant and
got Ph.D. degree later during his military service. Vladimir was serving in the army of
aerospace defense. He finished his military service in 2012 with the rank of colonel
because his contract with military forces was ended and became a reserve officer.
6. Vladimir Kupcov is a Deputy General Director of the construction company. He was
born in 1956. He got a degree of Master of Engineering in the military high school and
was promoted to junior lieutenant. He was serving in the coastal engineering troops of the
Soviet Navy for 34 years and engaged in construction of naval bases. He is a combat
officer and took part in military conflicts in Mozambique, Yemen, Afghanistan, Angola
and Chechnya. He finished his military service in a position of the unit commander with
the rank of colonel and became a retired officer because of wounds received during the
service. Vladimir got an interesting offer to work in a post of the chief engineer in the
construction company. Eventually, he has become a Deputy General Director in that
company.
7. Victor Savin is a chief specialist in the science and technology center. He was born in
1947. He graduated from the military high school with a degree in radio engineering. He
has a Ph.D. degree too. He was serving in the Soviet Navy. He retired from the military
service in 1997. He is a captain of the first rank. When he left the military service, he
finished semiannual management course about the public administration. Afterward, he
continued to work in the civil organization in the position of a head of the department.
8. Vladimir Naumov is a head of the department of business informatics in the North-West
Academy of Public Administration. He was born in 1952. He got a degree of Master of
Engineering in the Naval Academy and was promoted to junior lieutenant in 1974.
Vladimir was serving on ships of the Black Sea Navy until 1980. He was serving in
various teaching positions at the Naval Academy from 1980 till 2006. He was heading
the graduate departments at that academy from 1995 till 2006. He is a captain of the first
rank. He is a professor, Ph.D. of Military Sciences. He has worked in the North-West
Academy of Public Administration since 2008. He is a head of the department of
business informatics, mathematical and statistical methods since 2014. He is married and
has two sons.
5.1. Open Coding
The interviews took place during confidential conversations with each respondent individually.
The average time of conversation with each respondent was 50 minutes. As the basis of the
interview we had 12 open questions, by means of which we were able to get information about
the subject of our study. To obtain explanatory information and clarifications in the course of the
Malkov & Sobolev 49
interview, we asked spontaneous additional questions, which allowed us to get extensive
information about the subject of military leadership.
On the basis of data, which we gained during the interviews, and in accordance with grounded
theory we allocated 8 basic categories on the open-coding stage, that can provide accurate
assessment of military leadership, as the subject of our study. Respondents gave answers, which
were based on the personal experience getting through the service in the army and law
enforcement organizat o s, fo th s easo , each cate o y be s w th t t e ‘The M ta y
Expe e ce’. Below you can see the categories which we defined:
1. The Military Experience: the officer's character
2. The Military Experience: the perception of leadership
3. The Military Experience: the positive outcome
4. The Military Experience: the negative side (things that they didn't want to tell us)
5. The Military Experience: officers' leadership skills in civil organizations
6. The Military Experience: civil challenges
7. The Military Experience: features of the military organization
8. The Military Experience: the factor of the development of soft leadership
Below we will give a brief description of all 8 categories that we allocated. At the end of each
category we present a table with the key words and phrases that eight respondents told us during
interviews.
Category 1. The Military Experience: the officer's character
In this category we present the main features and qualities, which, in the opinion of our
respondents, the military officers should have. According to their answers, first of all the officer
should be educated person, possessing the necessary competences to work with the subordinates:
‘pe so ca be ve y ta e ted by atu e, but o de to become a eade a d a successfu ma a e
it needs to et p ope educat o ’ (Sergei Ermakov).
Almost all respondents expressed the view that the officer should always take responsibility for
making decisions and do not put it on their subordinates: ‘The eade s ob ed to take the
responsibility fo the dec s o mak p ocess’ (Ravil Kamalov). On the one hand the officer
must be strict and demanding with subordinates in order to maintain the necessary level of
d sc p e a d pe so a autho ty h s m ta y u t. ‘The officer should be strict and demanding
of subordinates in order to maintain a high discipline among soldiers and make orders to be
executed as soo as poss b e’ (Vladimir Petrov). But in the same time the officer must take care
about subordinates, the leader must be inside of the military team and to be aware of problems
and needs of their subordinates. ‘The officer should take care of his soldiers. The officer should
be able to listen to subo d ates, k ow the eeds, keep touch w th them co sta t y’
(Vladimir Kupcov).
We can say that the majority of respondents agree with the statement that the officer should
se ve as a examp e to fo ow amo the subo d ates. ‘Leader should demonstrate how to
work, how to fulfill personal responsibilities through his own example and exper e ce’ (V ad m
Kupcov). Subordinates should take the personal example of the commander to become better and
to develop following features and qualities, for instance, acco d of ou espo de ts: ‘se f-
discipline’, ‘d e ce’ (V ad m Kupcov) a d ‘eff c e cy dec s o mak ’ (Natalia Petrova),
‘ te ty, ho esty, te ac ty, d sc p e’ (Dmitry Napreev).
Respondents devoted special attention to the process of tasks execution by the officer and
subordinates. According to the majority of interviewees, the officer should always achieve goals
in time and do not exceed limits of the law. But absolutely all respondents agreed that despite
Malkov & Sobolev 50
any difficulty of the job, the officer must remain the human, save the face and the honor of the
off ce . ‘You shou d a ways stay a huma ’ (Viktor Savin).
Key words characterized the officer's character:
Category 2. The Military Experience: the perception of leadership
One of the major emphasizes in our interviews with former military officers has been put on the
topic of leadership. Our interviewees talk a lot about how they understand the phenomenon of
leadership in general. They give their own definitions of leadership in terms of their experience
and knowledge.
Vladimir Kupcov defines the leader as "a person who leads people". Sergei Ermakov thinks that
''leadership is the ability to make decisions and not to shift the responsibility for the
consequences on another person''. According to Victor Savin a true leader is "a person who
encourages people to follow him". Dmitry Napreev believes that ''the leadership is the ability to
lead people and subordinates, as well as the ability to take responsibility for decisions''. Ravil
Kamalov tells that ''the leadership is the ability to set organization goals and achieve them''.
Natalia Petrova views leadership as ''a set of certain qualities (efficiency in decision making,
responsibility, knowledge of people, good analytical skills) which acquired by a person in the
process of life under the influence of the society''.
Our participants consider leadership in two ways. The first way views leadership as a set of
qualities, characteristics and abilities that distinguishes a true leader from other people. The
second way views leadership as a set of actions.
Most of interviewees think that an ability to take responsibility is very important. Victor Savin
gives an example that ''only 10 % of all people are able to take responsibility, not expecting
anything in return. They lead the rest of 90 % of people".
Among the most repeated leadership qualities, we can note the authority. Sergei Ermakov says:
''the authority is a recognition and appreciation of leadership and management qualities by
subordinates''.
Our interviewees speak about the relevance of the work capacity, basic and additional education
and self-development. They think that the leader should get new competences and knowledge
constantly. Vladimir Petrov believes that ''who owns the information, owns the world".
Other important traits are confidence and courage. Sergei Ermakov explains that ''in order to
become a leader in the organization the person should not to be afraid to make mistakes and try
to do something new all the time''.
Only three participants pay attention to charisma. Dmitry Napreev says: ''I consider myself as a
charismatic leader, because I have the ability to convince people''.
Speaking about leaders' activity, Vladimir Petrov thinks that ''the leader has a strong influence on
people. He is able to change their opinions and convince them only through conversation".
Vladimir Kupcov believes that the leader should "demonstrate how to work, how to fulfill
personal responsibilities through his own example and experience". He adds that the leader is a
one who can inspire and energize people to do something. Savin agrees with him: ''A leader
should be a source of inspiration, he should be able to motivate people to act''.
high educational level, strict and demanding, care about soldiers, diligence,
achievement of every goal, responsibility, decisiveness, competent, discipline,
honesty, the commitment, a strong will, to be high qualified, to be fair.
Malkov & Sobolev 51
Our interviewees conclude that leadership is not based on the fear and punishment, but on the
attention, concern and encouragement to his subordinates. Vladimir Petrov also thinks that ''the
leader should create such conditions in which his subordinates feel useful. It is important to
make workers be interested in their work''.
Key words characterized the perception of the leadership:
Category 3. The Military Experience: the positive outcome
On the basis of material, which we obtained in the course of interviews, we can conclude that all
participants in our study pointed the fact that the military service is carried to them from the
pos t ve s de: ‘Yes t’s affected on me f om the pos t ve s de’ (Sergei Ermakov). In analysis of
this category, we would like to say about the influence of the military service on the person from
a personal and professional point of view.
First of all, we would like to point out the fact that nobody of our respondents positions
themselves as a future leader before the military service. ‘ efo e the military service, I d d ’t see
myself as a leader, but in the process of the service and trainings I obtained necessary
competencies which allowed me to take leadership positions’ (Sergei E makov) a d ‘du the
service I have shaped my ow eade sh p sty e’ (Viktor Savin).
According to our study, we can conclude that military service has helped these people to develop
personal leadership style, skills and competencies, which are necessary to work with people.
‘The m ta y se v ce has a owed me to deve op ma a e a compete ces, commu cat o sk s,
a d spec a ab t es that I use o c v a wo k ow’ (Vladimir Petrov).
Also the military service allows the respondents to deve op such pe so a qua t es as: ‘se f-
o ous, pu ctua pe fo m tasks a d m ta y dut es’ (Vladimir Kupcov), ‘I ca co s de
myself as a competent expert at working with peop e’ (Dmitry Nap eev), ‘orderliness, discipline,
to analyze any situation’ (Natalia Petrova), ‘comma de 's sk s’ (Ravil Kamalov).
In general, in accordance with the received data we can say that the military service make person
more disciplined and responsible, demanding to themselves and to subordinates, also persons
gain the ability to objectively evaluate and analyze the situation and make a right decisions. ‘The
army has taught me to place strict demands to myself and apply them to my subordinates’
(Vladimir Kupcov).
Speaking from professional point of view about the impact of military service on the person, it
should be noted that a person becomes a qualified specialist of a wide profile in the army. ‘Eve y
army officer should have a wide range of sk s to ma a e peop e’ (Vladimir Naumov).
According to the data, we can note that the officer has to communicate with different people and
government agencies and analyze a huge amount of information in different areas of knowledge.
‘Wo k such a system, you have to deal with many aspects of life constantly’ (Dmitry
Napreev). Respondents also noted that the military service can be very unpredictable, so for the
ability to listen; ability to set goals; to take responsibility; basic and additional education;
charisma; concern for subordinates; to convince through conversation; courage; to
develop people's advantages; experience; flexible; high demands on subordinates; high
discipline; integrity; to make risky decisions; to motivate; own example; respect for
people; self-critical; self-development; self-rigorous; source of inspiration; work capacity.
Malkov & Sobolev 52
officer is extremely important to have the largest possible number of skills and competencies.
‘At work I work. I have ’t take decisions u de the f ue ce of emot o s’ (Natalia Petrova).
Key words characterized positive outcome of the military experience:
Category 4. The Military Experience: the negative side (things that they didn't want to tell
us)
Indeed, the military experience has a negative influence on people. Our interviewees don't pay a
lot of attention this side of military service, but it's possible to find some examples of pernicious
impact.
Most of the interviewees explain that the military service requires a lot of time and efforts and
they paid little attention fam y. Se e E makov: ‘’Pe fo m dut es of the military service on a
managerial position required too much personal time. Also the position required a maximum
etu of phys ca a d emot o a esou ces’’.
Some of our participants talk about ambivalent influence of the military service. Vladimir Petrov
thinks that ''the army may have a different impact on the person. The service can develop
leadership skills and uncover leadership potential in a young man, as it has happened in my case,
or destroy innate inclinations''. Victor Savin adds that the army is not the best place to develop
leadership qualities. He says: ''These qualities are usually formed not because of, but rather in
contrary''. He explains that people have to overcome various difficulties in the army. If one can
cope with all challenges, he will probably become a good leader.
Some of our interviewees note that they have become more rigid, too much strict to people,
cy ca du the m ta y se v ce. A othe p ob em, as V ad m Kupcov otes: ‘’I the a my
the officer has to follow the rules established by the a my e u at o s”. It s the easo of a
absence of creativity, narrow range of interests.
Nevertheless, we admit the using authoritarian style by only two participants, Sergei Ermakov
and Ravil Kamalov. They tend to use authoritarian style in their work: ‘’I most s tuat o s
involving subordinates and decision-mak p ocess I use autho ta a sty e of eade sh p’’
(Sergei Ermakov).
Key words characterized the negative side of the military experience:
Category 5. The Military Experience: officers' leadership skills in civil organizations
absence of creativity; ambivalent influence; army regulations; authoritarian style;
destroy innate inclinations; insufficient level of softness; little attention to family;
love of power; low salary; narrow focus; no emotions; no time for personal life;
rigidity; stiffness.
objectivity, commander’s skills, no emotions, communication skills, managerial
competences, develop leadership skills, to understand subordinates, responsible, to
perform tasks completely, to overcome various difficulties, the great life experience,
to be responsible for words, not afraid of a large team.
Malkov & Sobolev 53
The military officers in the course of the military service acquire special skills and abilities that
they later use in work in civil organizations.
In general, it can be noted that the majority of respondents admitted several specific skills,
obtained in the army and used at work in civil organizations. First of all we would like to start
with objectivity. According to the data it can be concluded that the officers when they make
management decisions including disciplinary decisions try to gather as much information as
poss b e o de to make the ht dec s o . ‘When I make decisions including disciplinary
nature, I always listen the defense and the prosecution side, and only then make my decision. I
am interested in facts’ (Ravil Kamalov).
The officers being on duty constantly communicate with employees. Because of this reason, all
respondents noted that they are very able to understand people and very actively use this skill to
work in civil organizations. ‘Wo k a a e group, I can consider myself as a competent
expe t at wo k w th peop e’ (Dmitry Napreev).
The military service teaches people to act in extreme conditions and quickly make a solution of
problem. Many of the respondents noted that they often have to use this skill at work in civil
organizations, as there sometimes they have to operate in conditions of uncertainty and the
limited time frame.
The respondents also noted that they use the following skills and abilities acquired during the
course of military service: discipline, punctuality, commitment, self-discipline and subordinates,
ability to work in a team, honesty and ability to take responsibility for the decisions.
Key words characterized leadership skills in civil organizations:
Category 6. The Military Experience: Civil Challenges
When our interviewees left the service and came to work in civil organizations, they faced some
problems to adapt to new work environments. Only one of our participants (Victor Savin)
refused to talk about any problems. Victor Savin doesn't see any serious problems connected
with transition from the military position to work in a civil organization. He believes that ''any
experienced officer is able to adapt to new work conditions".
Other participants recognize problems of changing military service to work in civil
organizations.
One of the main obstacles, which hinder the former officers to be effective leaders in civil
organization, is working society, employees in civil organizations. Vladimir Petrov believes that
civil people have a ''different perception of objective reality''. He thinks that “p c p e of u ty
of command in civil organizations are not as well developed as in the army. There is no high
cohesion between people in the c v o a zat o ”. The ma a eme t of the staff in civil
organizations should be more soft and democratic. However, as Dmitry Napreev notes, the
former officers have ''the insufficient level of softness towards subordinates''. Natalia Petrova
tells the same: ''The only difficult thing I had to deal with was to reduce the level of rigidity and
demands to subordinates''. Hence, the main challenge for the former officers is to adopt new
att tudes. V ad m Kupcov exp a s: “The a my co ect ve s u fo m and cohesive. Employees
to be fair, find a way out, decision-making, objectivity, nobility, courage in making
difficult decisions, respect for people, inherent dignity, briefly and clearly,
communication.
Malkov & Sobolev 54
in the civil collective have different characters, genders, ages. Work in a civil organization
demands individual approach to the staff''.
Furthermore, most of our participants mention low performing discipline. For example, Vladimir
Petrov speaks about ''a long time reaction from employees on the problem''. Vladimir Naumov
says that ‘‘you expect less high diligence and less reliable assistants in civil organizations''.
Another difficulty is a difference between documents that regulate the rights, duties, powers,
relationships between the chief and subordinates in the army and in civil organizations. Vladimir
Petrov explains that when he came to the civil organization, ''it was difficult to get used to work
with people at first time because basics of activity of the army and civil organizations are
different. The military service is regulated by the army regulations. The activity of the civil
organization is regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation''. Victor Savin thinks that
the army makes more strict demands and controls people more accurately because of the army
regulations.
Key words characterized challenges in civil organizations for the former officers:
Category 7. The Military Experience: Features of Military Organizations
During the interview all respondents noted the features, which distinguish the army from other
state or commercial organizations. The main difference of the army from a commercial
organization, in the opinion of most respondents, is the ultimate goal. The primary objective in
commerce is making a profit; in the army it is a training and education of personnel. The army
environment, system of training and upbringing of the future officers are aimed at the
development of high moral and human qualities, that is, those qualities, which are necessary to
pe fo m ts tasks a d to p otect the home a d. ‘Only a different goal in commerce is a profit,
the goal in the Army is educat o , t a , m ta y sk s a d b up mo a va ues’ (Natalia
Petrova).
As one of the most important distinguishing features, all respondents noted the presence of the
military Charter in the army, which is an official document, regulating relations between the
personnel. According to our respondents, it describes the presence in the army such features as:
chain of command, the obligation of execution of orders, the liability for breach of orders, speed
of delivery and availability of discipline and hierarchy.
Key words characterized challenges in civil organizations for the former officers:
Category 8. The Military Experience: the factor of development of soft skills
We have discussed with our interviewees the importance of soft skills for leadership. More than
half of the participants consider these skills as the extremely important part of leader's set of
Ability to negotiate; adaptation to the civil structure; be more flexible; be softer;
different ages; different characters; different genders; individual approach;
insufficient level of softness; Labor Code; lack of unity; love of power; low cohesion
between people; low performance discipline; narrow specialization; selfishness.
Military charter, orders, Chain of commands, discipline, bringing up, moral core,
training, education, hierarchy, respect, commitment, no matter whether you want it
or not.
Malkov & Sobolev 55
skills. They think that a leader should use such methods in the management of organization.
They highlight such soft skills as communication, teamwork skills and motivation because ''the
officer and any leader work primarily with people'' (Vladimir Kupcov).
Some participants state that the confidence is very important. Victor Savin explains that it is ''an
ability to safely and positively respond to the any situation''. He notes the importance of
teamwork skills: ''The leader should build efficient relationships with partners and subordinates,
be able to resolve conflicts. ... In general, I think the higher the position, the more
communication and motivation skills for the staff is required from the leader''.
Vladimir Naumov agrees with the previous participant: "The higher the position, the greater role
is played by social skills, while professional knowledge go to the background. The main task for
the superiors is to be able to make right decisions, to motivate employees and successfully lobby
for their ideas".
Civil leaders need to be more self-conscious, self-organized, and self-rigorous. Dmitrii Napreev
states that "it is required by the fact that many people often overlook the faults of others and do
not see own disadvantages''.
Speaking about soft skills, some of our interviewees note that they play a secondary role in their
career. They think that the most important skills are a professionalism, diligence, and
responsibility. Soft skills only support them.
Key words characterized the influence of the military experience on social skills:
5.2. Axial coding
When we formulated 8 basic categories, we tried to combine them into core categories using
comparative approach.
Finally, we have got the following 3 core categories:
1. The image of the Military Leader;
2. The positive influence of the military experience;
3. The negative influence of the military experience.
5.2.1. The image of the Military Leader
Based on our analysis of data, we can conclude that the modern military leader is a person who
has an ability to lead and encourage people, to set organizational goals and achieve them, to
make decisions and take the responsibility for decision-making process. The military leaders
devote a lot of time to education and developing their skills by training. The basic education, as
well as additional education is an important factor of professionalism for them. As White (2014)
otes, ‘training leaders is a necess ty, a d the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy whe e fa u e to
be promoted at certain times means you must leave the orga zat o ’ (p. 11). At the same time
the military leaders pursue self-improvement, gaining new competencies and skills. Hence, the
responsibility; understanding of strengths and weaknesses; communication skills;
confidence; develop professional skills of subordinates; integrity; flexible; honesty;
keep in touch with subordinates; motivation; respect for people; self-conscious; self-
criticism; self-development; self-organized; self-rigorous; teamwork skills.
Malkov & Sobolev 56
military leader is characterized by the high work capacity. They used to make a lot of effort in
their work.
In accordance with the data, which we gained from the interviewees, we can define relevant and
important features of character, which distinguish the good officer and the military leader. These
traits are: responsibility for decision-making process, courage, confident, decisiveness, honesty,
discipline, bearing, taking care and keeping in touch with subordinates. In general, these traits
make a common moral core of the military leader (Bennet 2009, Kelley 2013, Kohlberg 1981).
The key competence for the military leaders is an ability to take responsibility. This quality
relates to all leadership activities. They are responsible for decision making, for the performance
or non-performance of tasks, for providing proper working conditions, for the development of
subordinates. They are able to convince people and change followers' opinions. They have a
strong power of motivation and inspiration for subordinates.
Also, as we said before, based on the research conducted among 200 respondents in the Armed
Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Zukic 2013) and research of R. Thompson (Thompson 2012)
we highlighted the most frequently mentioned traits military leaders, such as Justice, Confident,
Honesty, Initiative, Responsibility, Decisiveness, Courage and Bearing.
Our survey, research of R. Thompson and research conducted among 200 respondents in the
Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina quiet clear show to us that participants of all three
researches could highlight common traits and features of character, which the good military
leader should have, for instance: Responsibility, Decisiveness, Honesty, Courage, Confident and
Bearing.
It is very important to note here, that our respondents acquainted and developed all those skills
during the military service. And they still use it being at work in civil organizations. In addition
to the listed features, we would like to add following military leadership skills that our
respondents carry out in civil organizations; they are objectivity, motivation, courage and
personal example for the subordinates. The military leaders use an own example and a great
work experience to demonstrate how to work and achieve goals.
Furthermore, they use their developed communication skills to interact with people and
teamwork skills to create cohesive team. The military leaders attempt to create special work
environments in which followers are interested in achieving common goals and feel useful.
While they were at the military service, they developed their skills and competencies, which are
necessary to work and communicate with people. All respondents got large experience to
collaborate, communicate, make orders and perform tasks with their subordinates. We suppose
that this experience and qualities have allowed them to improve their leadership style, achieve
high ranks and sustainable social position in life.
Also in accordance with our theory chapter and information from our study, we would like to say
that due to the presence of high quality military educational system and ‘up o out po cy’ the
army, the military leaders are specialists of wide range. During the military service they gained a
lot of practical experience in the field of working with people, machines and laws. Any leaders
in the army begin the career from the lowest rank and gradually move up on the career ladder,
because ‘most m ta y o a zat o s have a h h y st uctu ed bu eauc acy’ (Thompso 2011, p.
98). For examp e, ‘off ce s the U.S. A my ca expect to spe d 3 yea s of a 20-year career in
A my schoo s deve op the eade compete c es a d sk s eeded fo the ext eve ’ (Wo
2003, p. 660). Such a promotion system allows gaining high-class professionals who go through
a whole path of career development, with the necessary number of skills and competencies, the
leaders who knows system from the inside.
Malkov & Sobolev 57
It is very important to say that during the military service our respondents have found true and
faithful friends with whom they still continue to be friends. People usually call this kind of
friendship as “ othe A ms”.
During the military service they mastered the required number of professional competences and
gained University degrees. These aspects have allowed our respondents to find a good place of
working in the civil sphere after the military service.
According to our theoretical chapter and data from interviews, we can define the leadership
style, which our respondents have used, as transformational leadership style including elements
of charisma and human-assets approach to lead people.
5.2.2. The positive influence of the military experience
In accordance with answers of our respondents, we conclude that the military service has helped
them to shape own leadership style. Here we want to specify the fact that no one of our
participants considers him/herself as a future leader. As we mentioned before, we can define the
leadership style, which the military leaders use, as transformational leadership style (Bass 1985;
Bass 2008; Breevaart et al. 2014; Dust 2013; Giltinane 2013; Rolfe 2011; Ruggieri & Abbate
2013; Seibert, Wang & Courtright 2011) with elements of charisma (Antonakis, Fenley &
Liechti 2011; Bass 1985; House 1977; Weber 1968) and human-assets approach (Farkas &
Wetlaufer 1996).
First of all, in accordance with our theory this leadership style is associated with the care that
leader manifests to the personal development of subordinates to satisfy their personal interests
(Bass 1985; Breevaart et al. 2014). All of our respondents said that they always take care about
their employees. They constantly try to understand problems, hesitations and desires of their
subordinates in order to optimize the work process to achieve setting tasks.
The majority of our respondents admitted that as transformational leaders they try to establish
special environment to satisfy their needs. For instance, they allow employees to get interesting
work and training or they give to subordinates such jobs that would develop their skills and
talents. Acco d to Dust (2013), t a sfo mat o a eade s sp e the fo owe s ‘through
creating a compelling vision, role modeling, and takin the wa ts a d ta e ts’ (p. 413).
Our military leaders spoke a lot about inspiration employees to work, shaping their values
through clear vision and understanding of situation and including employees in decision-making
process. As Bass (1985) otes, a t a sfo mat o a eade ‘adapts to the changes and instability of
the situation and involves, motivates, and supports followers in a manner consistent with the
required t a sfo mat o s’ (cited in Ruggieri & Abbate 2013, p. 1172).
Our military leaders as transformational leaders try to create clear, optimistic and realistic picture
of the future, encourages others to raise the level of expectations, reduces complexity by
reducing the problem to the key questions, they use simple language to notify the mission of the
organ zat o to subo d ates. I acco da ce w th Dust (2013) ‘transformational leaders use
intellectual stimulation to encourage followers to challenge the status quo and to solve problems
us ove deas’ (p. 414).
Our leaders talk that they create a vision of the mission, establish high aims and show
perseverance and determination in achieving them, sacrificing their selfish interests for the good
of others, hence, deserve respect and trust. Followers in this type of leadership are ready to invest
additional effort in accomplishing the mission of an organization.
Also we would like to mention that the military leaders try to be a role model for their employees
involving them in a constant process of the change and the development itself. Inspirational
Malkov & Sobolev 58
motivation means that transformational leaders transfer their vision of organizational
development and confidence in success to followers. The leaders transform and motivate
followers through their idealized influence, charisma, intellectual stimulation and individual
attention to them (Breevaart et al. 2014).
ass (1985) states that ‘charisma is a subcomponent of t a sfo mat o a eade sh p’ (cited in
Antonakis, Fenley & Liechti 2011, p. 375). Speaking about charisma, we would like to mention,
that approximately half of our respondents announced that they believe in charisma and consider
themselves as charismatic leaders.
I e e a t a sfo mat o a eade sh p ca be cha acte zed by the fou I’s: 'Idea zed f ue ce,
inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation' (Breevaart et al.
2014, p. 140). In accordance with this quote and data from our study, we can consider that all our
espo de ts va y de ees me t o ed a th s I’s.
As we mentioned before, the military leaders apply elements of the human-assets approach. The
military leaders develop their employees through implementation the major organization values
eve y so d e . I o de to do th s, they p ov de p ocedu es of ec u t , emp oyees’ t a ,
and stuff motivation, rewarding programs. They pay attention face-to-face communication with
subordinates to know their personal matters. They believe that the best method to improve the
competition advantages is to give followers an opportunity to take part in decision-making,
launching new products and interaction with customers (Farkas and Wetlaufer 1996, p. 115).
As a conclusion of this part we want to say that in our vision and according to followership
theory the collaboration and communication process between our leaders and their employees
can be considered from positions of re at o a v ew. That mea s ‘a mutual influence process
amo eade s a d fo owe s’ (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 87).
The Military Experience is the factor of development of soft leadership
The military leaders have not only professional skills and knowledge but also they value soft
skills because they work with people continually. They attempt to build efficient relationships
with partners and subordinates via negotiations and bilateral dialogues with followers.
Such soft skills as communication, confidence, teamwork skills and motivation skills can
describe the military leaders. The military leaders stimulate the development personal and
professional sides of employees (Rao 2013). They admit the importance of training system for
their followers.
Furthermore, the military leaders pay attention own personalities. It is extremely significant to be
self-conscious, self-organized and self-rigorous for them.
The military leaders possess almost all the main soft sk s p ese ted by Rob es: ‘integrity,
communication, courtesy, responsibility, social skills, positive attitude, professionalism,
teamwo k, a d wo k eth c’ (2012, p. 453), which they have gained and enhanced during the
military service.
We can view the military leaders as the soft leaders in civil organizations, because they believe
‘setting a personal example, empathy, persuasion, e ot at o , a d asse t ve ess’ (Rao 2013,
p. 145) as well as soft leaders. Hence, they encourage people to be more free and to experiment
in the work.
The military leaders have more than half key characteristics of soft leadership – ‘character,
charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication, consistency, consideration, and
contribution to make a difference the ves of the pa t e s’ (Rao 2013, p. 144).
Malkov & Sobolev 59
Indeed, we should make a proviso that not all the military leaders have this set of soft qualities
and not all the military leaders can be soft leaders. Nevertheless, we sure that the military service
and true officer's personality in total create a powerful basis for the development soft leadership.
5.2.3. The negative influence of the military experience
The army as well as the majority of social systems is based on strong vertical hierarchical
relationships between commanders and subordinates, which supported by legitimate power. This
power can be called as rational-legal authority (Weber 1946, Mansfield 1973), which is defined
by a system of rules, control and ordered procedures.
The army is an orthodox organization, in which subordinates are commanded and controlled by
person owning the authority through system of orders. The army has the highest level of formal
hierarchy among social systems. Hence, a special hierarchical structure and impersonal rules and
orders applying in the army create conditions, which put in unequal social relationships between
commander and subordinates (Diefenbach and Sillince 2011).
These relationships, also all principles of management (authority and responsibilities; discipline;
unity of command; unity of direction; subordination of individual interests to the general interest;
centralization; scalar chain; equity) (Fayol 1949) are established by the army regulations. These
rules make demands to people more strict and control people more accurately.
The military leader in the army is influenced by these prerequisites, which conduce to destructive
leadership.
The army ca be v ewed the f ame of ‘the tox c t a e’ including destructive leaders,
susceptible followers, and conducive environments (Padilla, Hogan & Kaiser 2007).
The army environment can provide most factors of destructive leadership like personalized need
for power, negative narcissism, a selfish orientation, an ideology of hate, dominance and
coercion.
Followers conform to authority of the military leader because of the principle of hierarchy and in
accordance with the military rules. The military officer in the army can be viewed as 'power-
wielding actor who affect group and organizational outcomes' (Yukl & Van Fleet 1992 cited in
Uhl-Bien et al. 2014, p. 84). Leaders in the army play a main role in achieving goals. They
completely influence on followers' behavior and attitudes. They direct followers to perform
tasks. Followers are considered as subordinates who get orders and carry out them without any
resistance and doubt. Hence, they don't have performance initiative (Uhl-Bien et al. 2014).
These circumstances can change the military leader in the army into the toxic leader in a civil
organization. They don't concern about wellbeing of followers, positive organizational
development and pay attention their own ambitions, create negative atmosphere in a team (Box
2012, Elle 2012, Reed 2014).
The military service has an ambivalent character regarding the leadership development. The
army can uncover leadership potential and facilitate the development of leadership skills. In the
same time, it can ruin leadership inclinations. This point is explained by challengeable character
of the military career. People move up on the career ladder from the lowest position to the officer
rank. They have to overcome difficulties of training system, hierarchical relationships with
senior commanders and so on. As Wh te otes, ‘the m ta y has a “up o out” po cy whe e
failure to be promoted at certain times means you must eave the o a zat o ’ (2014 p. 11).
Thus, if one copes with all challenges, he will probably become a good leader.
The m ta y se v ce mpact o the off ce ’s personality. It makes people more rigid and cynical,
too much strict and exacting to subordinates. Most of the former officers have the insufficient
level of softness towards subordinates.
Malkov & Sobolev 60
The military regulations subjugate and regulate interpersonal relations between officers and
subordinates. The officers have to accomplish their duties only in accordance with rules
established by regulations. It is the reason of an absence of creativity in work, narrow range of
interests.
The military principles of unity of command and subordination of individual interests to the
general interest cultivate features of transactional style. Such military leaders focus on task
performance and don't always pay attention team needs (Ruggieri & Abbate 2013). It seems
obvious that they do ’t use ewa ds a d ach eve wo k esu ts o y v a system of pu shme ts.
The military service conduces to the development features of diminisher leadership style
(Wiseman & McKeown 2010). The army principles establish conditions, in which the officers
have to be centralized in decision-making. They don't have to allow subordinates to take part in
discussions.
Civil challenges
When the officers leave the military service and come to work in civil organizations, they can
face some problems to adapt to new work environment and adopt new attitudes.
The sense of principles of unity of command and unity of direction in modern civil organizations
is changing in compare with traditional understanding in the army (Rodrigues 2001). A
hierarchical organizational structure of vertical communication between the highest management
level and the lowest positions is reducing. Now organizational structures are becoming less
formalized, less hierarchical, and flatter. A civil organization can have several bosses for one
organizational function. Hence, the former officer can face with several managers, specialists in
different work groups, who lead on the same organizational level and give orders to
subordinates.
Another challenge for the military leader in civil organizations is characters of civil employees.
Modern c v o a zat o s demo st ate ‘more commitment to ts emp oyees tha the past’
(Rodrigues 2001, p. 882). Now employees are empowered and get freedom to make decisions in
work groups unlike military subordinates. Moreover, the civil collective possesses lower
performing discipline than the military team. Employees need a lot of time to perceive and solve
problem in compare with army subordinates.
The civil collective is not high cohesive like the military team. Employees in the civil collective
have different characters, genders, ages.
Work in a civil organization demands from the military leader individual approach to the staff.
As it mentioned before, the former officers have the insufficient level of softness towards
subordinates. Thus, they should be more soft and democratic to work and lead in civil
organizations efficiently.
Another difficulty is a difference between documents that regulate the rights, duties, powers,
relationships between the senior and subordinates in the army and in the civil organization. The
military leader has to know thoroughly the Labor Code.
Malkov & Sobolev 61
6. Co c us o
In the conclusion we would like to present the outcome of our work with the maste thes s ‘The
military leadership and its consequences on leadership in c v o a zat o s’. Our aim was to
define possible benefits of the military experience, which have impact on practice of leadership
in civil organizations. Thus, we formulated research question in the following way: ‘How does
the military experience influence the performance, efficiency or failure of leadership in civil
o a zat o s?’
Starting our work, we were not sure what kind of impact the military experience could have in
this case. So we were opened for all possible results of our research. Eventually, we have got a
‘substa t ve theo y’, which allow us to make conclusion about the dual character of using the
military experience on leadership positions in civil organizations. We have recognized the
positive and negative nature of the influence of the military experience on civil leadership. We
have defined what might hinder the effective using of the military experience in civil
organizations. Finally, we have defined how to avoid this baneful influence and get more
benefits from the military experience. We hope that following conclusions can be useful and
interesting for readers and further researches.
1) The ‘dark” side of the military leadership
To be w th the ‘da k’ side of the military experience. The military service can create a special
environment for development destructive leadership. This fact is explained by the fact that
military charters establish strong vertical hierarchical structure, system of impersonal rules and
orders, unequal social relationships between commander and subordinates, which supported by
legitimate authority of the higher commander. These conditions make the military leaders more
rigid, inflexible and brutal to people. Hence, they sometimes control people around them stricter
without any well-grounded reasons. The army environment can provide a lot of factors of
destructive leadership like personalized need for power, negative narcissism, a selfish
orientation, an ideology of hate, dominance and coercion. Thus, unreasonable demands,
unwarranted rigidity and inflexibility in behavior of the military officers can exert pressure on
employees those s tuat o s whe t does ’t eed. Thereby, interaction between the leader and
followers can be disturbed; motivation of the staff and the effectiveness of problem solving
process can be decreased.
Starting to work in civil organizations, the military leaders have to adapt for new work
environments and adopt civil leadership behavior in according with new attitudes of civil
organizations. The sense of principles of unity of command and unity of direction in modern
civil organizations is changing in compare with traditional understanding of these principles in
the army. A hierarchical structure of civil organizations is reducing and becoming less
formalized, less hierarchical, and flatter than the army organizational structure. The former
officers should interact with several managers on the same level of organization. Moreover, the
former officers have to take notes about special features of the Labor Code and job contracts,
which are different from the military charters.
Another challenge for the military leaders in civil organizations is special features of civil
employees. It seems obvious that civil collectives are more empowered, more free in decision
making, less disciplined and cohesive than military subordinates.
The military leaders in civil organizations have to be softer, creative, flexible, open-minded, and
apply individual approach to the staff. They should reduce the level of cynicism and rigidity in
work with people. Only these assumptions help them to adapt their leadership style to the civil
system.
Malkov & Sobolev 62
2) The effectiveness of military leadership
Despite the possible negative impact of the military experience on leadership style of the former
officers, our theory proves the fact that in most extent the military experience has a positive
influence on the effectiveness of leadership in civil organizations.
First of all, the military service creates conditions for formation of transformational leadership
style among the officers. This style can be beneficial for both the army and civil organizations,
because transformational leaders always try to create clear, optimistic picture of the future,
encourage others to raise the level of expectations and reduces complexity by solving key
problems.
The transformational military leaders are able to create a clear vision of the organizational
mission, establish precise aims and motivate people to achieve them. They sacrifice their selfish
interests for the good of others, deserve fo owe s’ respect and trust and, hence, strengthen
leadership credibility, stable relationships among employees.
The transformational military leaders are associated with the concern, which they manifest to the
personal development of subordinates and pay attention their personal interests. They try to
understand problems, hesitations and desires of their subordinates constantly in order to optimize
the work process and achieve setting tasks. Also we would like to mention that the
transformational military leaders transfer their vision of the organizational development and
confidence in success to followers. Subordinates in their turn are ready to invest additional
efforts in accomplishing the organizational mission.
Another positive side of the military experience increasing the effectiveness of leadership in civil
organizations is that the army brings up and develops relevant personality traits, which each
leader should have, such as responsibility for decision-making process, courage, confident,
decisiveness, honesty, discipline, bearing, taking care and keeping in touch with subordinates. In
common these traits create the moral core of the military leaders, which is a set of inviolable and
strict internal rules and patterns of behavior for the military leaders in their daily life and work.
Furthermore, the military service allows facilitating the qualities of soft leadership style, which is
very important in an efficient interaction between the leaders and subordinates both in the army
and in civil organizations. The military leaders have the majority of key characteristics of soft
leadership like character, charisma, conscience, conviction, courage, communication,
consistency, consideration, and contribution to make a difference in the lives of their partners.
They draw attention relationships and behavior of their followers. They stimulate negotiations
with employees, use team building and motivational methods. Hence, they allow people to feel
less stress, to be more free in working process, thereby, increasing staff effectiveness.
Figure 4. The effectiveness of civil leadership
True Personality
Military Experience
Effectiveness of Civil
Leadership
Malkov & Sobolev 63
Summing up, we believe that the military experience can be successfully implemented in civil
organizations. The military leaders can increase effectiveness and performance of civil
leadership but only in that case, when the military experience is based on the true personality of
the military leaders (see Figure 4). When we speak about the true personality, we mean a special
moral core and soft skills, which the military service facilitates in people.
Uniqueness of military leadership is explained by the fact that the military leaders combine
transformational style in leading people, the backbone to take responsibility and make decisions,
teamwo k sk s w th qua t es of mo a ty a d ‘soft ess’, ke h h eve of d sc p e, ho esty,
self-discipline, coura e, pate a ca e fo subo d ates, wh ch the c v eade s ofte do ’t
possess. Thus, we think that the military leadership can be valuable for all companies in the
modern world with its instability, uncertainty, rapid changes and crises.
Malkov & Sobolev 64
7. D scuss o
In our thesis we discuss the military leadership and its consequences on leadership in civil
organizations. We have considered the result of the interaction between the personality, social
and organizational environments in the army and civil organizations.
Officials of military units and formations, universities in educational purposes can use our
findings about special features of the formation of the military leadership. The substantive theory
based on the core categories can allow the officers to diagnose the level of formation of
leadership qualities of their subordinates and themselves to make organizational and
management solutions aimed at creating an effective leadership style and positive morale
environment in military units.
Results of the study can also be useful for work socialization perspectives of the former military
officers. The officers who leave the military service to work in civil organizations can focus on
our outcomes and results of future studies in order to be prepared for challenges in civil
organizations.
We recognize that our findings are limited for several reasons and should be subjected to further
study and improvement.
First of all, the data analysis was based on data collected in result of interviews with the Russian
former officers. Interviews were made on a basis of prepared list of questions and clarifying
questions that arise during each interview. We believe that it is necessary to conduct additional
interviews with set of questions covering new issues within the research field.
Besides, we were limited to data collected from a certain group of the military officers,
consisting of 8 people. It seems obvious that this is not enough to make deep incontestable
conclusions on research. We suppose that it is necessary to increase the number of respondents
for more accurate results. Furthermore, a big size of sample of participants allows using
quantitative methods to detect some statistical patterns within the research question.
In addition, we have conducted a survey from a leaders' perspective and paid a few attention to
followers. It is possible that the results might have differed, if the research had been conducted
o the off ce s’ subo d ates, usua so d e s.
In our thesis we consider examples of the former officers working in various civil organizations
– in business, entrepreneurial, public institutions. We think that further researches of the
peculiarities of different kinds of civil organizations are necessary to be conducted.
Finally, in our thesis we have used the data from studies conducted only in several countries.
One of studies identifies the main inherent personal characteristics of the military leaders. It is
based on military doctrines of the US Army and Marine Corps, the Royal Air Force College, the
Canadian Armed Forces. Furthermore, we use survey considered the main characteristics of the
military leaders among 200 respondents in Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Our
interviews reflect the military experience of the officers who have served only in the Soviet and
Russian Armed forces. We admit that results of each study demonstrate essential features of
national military systems in the USA, the Great Britain, Canada, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
Soviet Union and Russia. Hence, the further surveys should specify data about these countries
and pay attention other national military systems.
Thus, further studies are needed to evaluate, refine, and develop our theory.
Malkov & Sobolev 65
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Appe d x
Appendix A. Questions for interviews
1. What key features, values, and traits can you emphasize in the role of the officer in the army?
2. How do you define leadership? What does the term "leader" mean for you? What qualities are
significant for person to be a leader? What attributes must a leader possess to be effective?
3. Brief biography (age, sex, education, rank, place of work).
4. What is your leadership philosophy? How do you see yourself as a leader? What kind of
leader are you? What is your personal style of leadership? What a e the ‘must have’ sk s fo
today's leaders in civil organizations?
5. What are some of the defining moments in your career that have shaped your leadership style?
6. How has the military service influenced on your human and professional development? What
have you known in the army for your future career? What skills that you have enhanced in the
army do you use at this moment?
7. How have your leadership qualities evolved during your military service?
8. Short story about the transition from military service to civilian work. What happened when
you left the army and decided to begin civil career?
9. What can hinder former officers to be effective leaders in civil organizations? What the main
obstacles have you faced in the work after the military service? What leadership challenges have
you overcome in civil organizations?
10. Can you highlight the similarities and the differences in managing people in the army and
civil organizations?
11. What o e do the «soft sk s» ( ke se f-regulation, motivation, self-awareness) play in your
career? Do you think they are assessed differently in the army and civil organizations?
12. What is your advice to managers who may be thinking about developing their leadership
skills and pursuing a career as a high-level leader? What skills and experiences does a young
person need to develop today in order to be a successful leader tomorrow?
Malkov & Sobolev 72
Linnaeus University – a firm focus on quality and competence
O 1 Ja ua y 2010 Väx University and the University of Kalmar merged to form
Linnaeus University. This new university is the product of a will to improve the quality,
enhance the appeal and boost the development potential of teaching and research, at the
same time as it plays a prominent role in working closely together with local society.
Linnaeus University offers an attractive knowledge environment characterised by high
quality and a competitive portfolio of skills.
Linnaeus University is a modern, international university with the emphasis on the desire
for knowledge, creative thinking and practical innovations. For us, the focus is on
proximity to our students, but also on the world around us and the future ahead.
L æus U ve s ty
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