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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Module # 3 – Component # 1
Suitable Game Species –
Vital Statistics for Game Managers
Objective Achieve an understanding of some of the suitable African game species for introduction to reserves or ranches; the factors to be considered when planning an introduction; and the behaviour and social systems of animals which are important in game management.
Expected Outcome
Deduce the suitability of a game species for a specific game ranch or reserve given
certain circumstances Have a basic knowledge of the most important African game species Understand the social systems of animals and the way in which it affects animal
density Understand the reasons and methods for monitoring game Understand the principles of sound genetic management and the purpose thereof
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Introduction Not every nature reserve or game ranch is suitable for all game species. It is very important that animals are only introduced into a habitat that can fulfil their basic living requirements. The choice and management of the type of game in an area are partly determined by the management objectives which are set for the area.
A good starting point when choosing game species is to study the historical distribution of species within the area in which the reserve or ranch is situated. Further, the ecology of each species considered for introduction should be studied and its living requirements compared to the available habitat.
The following section will briefly discuss the characteristics of various southern African game species, their ecology and habitat requirements. This gives an indication of the factors that should be considered when studying other game species with the view to introduction into an area.
A tranquilised Roan antelope: Hippotragus equinus Notice the tranquilising darts towards the back and side of the animal
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Herbivores
Sable Antelope: Hippotragus niger
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
African elephant - Loxodonta africana
Habitat
Versatile, woodlands, savannahs, grasslands, semi-desert
Social structure
Matriarchal family groups, bachelor groups and solitary bulls
Food Preference
Grass, browse, bark, fruit
Sexual maturity
♂ - 10 years ♀ - 11 years
Gestation
22 months
First calving
15 years
Calving interval
Variable
Age at weaning
2 years
Adult Mass
♂: 5000 – 6000kg (11 000 – 13 200 lbs) ♀: 3000 – 4000kg (6600-8800lbs)
Longevity
60 – 70 years
General Ecology Elephants have highly developed social systems. They utilize a wide variety of habitats and have a significant impact on their environment by pushing over trees, ring-barking trees and bush clearing. This can be beneficial in opening areas for other species to utilize, but if the degree of utilization is too intense elephants can transform an entire landscape with much destruction in the process. Elephant populations double on average every 14 – 15 years in savanna areas. This has major influence on the reintroduction of elephants into reserves and introduction population numbers must be well-planned with expert advice. Overpopulation can have disastrous consequences for biodiversity.
Feeding spectrum
Bulk feeder
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
African elephant - Loxodonta africana
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
White Rhinoceros - Ceratotherium simum
Habitat
Abundant grass cover and lower shrub stratum, water dependant
Social structure
Small family groups, adult bulls solitary
Food Preference
Selective grazers, utilizing mostly palatable broad-leaf grasses.
Sexual maturity
5 ½ years
Gestation
16 months
First calving
6 – 7 years
Calving interval
3 years
Adult Mass
♂ 2100 kg (4630 lbs.) ♀ 1600 kg (3530 lbs.)
Longevity
40 years
General Ecology White rhinoceroses usually occur in small family groups with a mean size of 2,3 animals. Adult bulls are usually solitary. White rhinoceroses maintain a territorial system in which breeding males defend their territories against their opponents.
Feeding spectrum
Bulk feeder
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
White Rhinoceros - Ceratotherium simum
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Black Rhinoceros - Diceros bicornis
Habitat
Versatile, dependant on availability of shrubs and short trees
Social structure
Solitary
Food Preference
Browse, leaves and thorns
Sexual maturity
♂: 8 years ♀: 6 years
Gestation
15 months
First calving
7 – 8 years
Calving interval
2 ½ – 3 yearly
Adult Mass
800 – 1000kg (1760 – 2200 lbs.)
Longevity
35 – 40 years
General Ecology Black rhino are among the most valuable African animals. Having become critically endangered during the 1970’s due to poaching, significant efforts have since been put into their conservation. Black rhino live solitary, except for a cow and her calf. Black rhino are not territorial but occupy home ranges. Fighting can, however, occur to establish dominance when their density is high. Habitat management is crucial to successful keeping of black rhino in smaller areas.
Feeding spectrum
Highly selective browser
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Black Rhinoceros - Diceros bicornis
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Burchells zebra - Equus burchelli
Habitat
Open woodland, grassland, water dependent.
Social structure
Dominant male with breeding herd, bachelor groups
Food Preference
Grass, bulk feeder, attracted to burnt areas.
Sexual maturity
2 years
Gestation
12 months
First foal
3 – 4 years
Foaling interval
13+ months
Mating period
December – February
Foaling period
December – February
Adult mass
320kg (705 lbs.)
Longevity
22 years
General Ecology General: Being bulk feeders, zebra have the positive effect of opening grassland for other species. Zebra live in close-knit family groups.
Feeding spectrum
Bulk feeder
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Burchells zebra: Equus burchelli
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Warthog - Phacochoerus aethiopicus
Habitat Open terrain with short grass, flood-plain, attracted to burnt vegetation
Social structure Solitary, pairs or female groups.
Food Preference Mostly vegetarian, roots, fruits, grass.
Sexual maturity 1 ½ years old
Gestation 6 – 7 months
First litter 2 years
Mean litter size 3 piglets
Mating January – March
Births July – September
Adult Mass 44 – 104 kg (97 – 230 lbs.)
Longevity 17 years
General Ecology Warthogs are useful indicators of overgrazing as they are the first game to visually lose body condition. There is little competition between warthogs and grazing antelope. However, if overstocked warthogs can damage the grass sward due to their digging behaviour.
Feeding spectrum mixed feeder
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Warthog: Phacochoerus aethiopicus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Hippopotamus - Hippopotamus amphibius
Habitat Rivers, swamps, lakes and adjacent areas
Social structure Loose groups of females or bachelors, territorial males
Food Preference Grass
Sexual maturity ♂ 5 – 7 years ♀ 3 years
Gestation 7 ½ months
First calving 4 years
Calving interval 2 – 3 years
Calving All year
Adult Mass ♂ 1000 – 2000kg (2200- 4410 lbs.) ♀ 950 – 1600kg. (2100-3530 lbs.)
Longevity 40 years
General Ecology General: Hippos are popular animals from a tourism point of view. However, they can be extremely aggressive and dangerous. Where activities such as fishing, or canoeing are offered, hippos should not be introduced.
Feeding spectrum Bulk feeder
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Hippopotamus: Hippopotamus amphibius
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Blue wildebeest - Connochaetes taurinus
Habitat
Open woodland, short grassland, shade and water essential
Social structure
Territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups
Food Preference
Short grass
Sexual maturity
♂ 2 years ♀ 15 months
Gestation
8 months
First calving
2 years
Mating
February – May
Calving period
November – January
Age at weaning
8 months
Adult Mass
180 - 250 kg (400 – 550 lbs.)
Longevity
18 years
General Ecology Blue wildebeest appear to be partially resistant to ticks and are often recommended as a measure of ‘tick control’. The life cycles of several tick species seem to be inhibited on the blue wildebeest host
Feeding spectrum
Highly selective grazer
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Blue wildebeest: Connochaetes taurinus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Blue duiker - Philantomba monticola
Habitat Thicket and dense woodland with ample undergrowth, water dependent
Social structure Territorial pairs with their offspring
Food Preference Wild fruit (particularly figs), fallen leaves and flowers
Sexual maturity ♂ 9 months ♀ 10 – 12 months
Gestation 6 ½ - 7 months
First lamb 18 months
Lambing period All year
Lambing interval 9 months
Adult Mass 3 – 6 kg (6 ½ - 13 lbs.)
Longevity 10 years
General Ecology Blue duiker have specialised habitat requirements and are confined to woodlands, forests and thickets with thick undergrowth for cover. Both males and females carry tiny horns of about 3 – 4,5 cm length (1.2 – 1.8 in.)
Feeding spectrum Highly selective browser
Water dependent No
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Blue duiker: Philantomba monticola
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Giraffe - Giraffa camelopardalis
Habitat Open woodland and shrubland with abundant food plants, riverine forest
Social structure Variable – temporary associations
Food Preference Browse, occasionally young grass
Sexual maturity ♂ 3 – 4 years ♀ 4 – 5 years
Gestation 15 months
First calving 5 – 6 years
Calving period All year, peak March – April
Adult Mass 1100 – 1300kg (2425 –2870 lbs.)
Longevity 20 years
General Ecology Giraffe are gregarious, but no strong social bonds develop, except between a female and her calf. Herds consist of females and their young and tend to break up and regroup often. Bachelor herds as well as mixed herds are formed at times. An interesting aspect of the giraffe’s physiology is the way it copes with potential blood pressure problems, which could particularly affect the functioning of the brain. The brain is about 2 metres (6 ½ ft.) below the heart when the animal is drinking and 2 metres above the heart when the head is held upright. To pump blood up to this height, the heart has 7 cm (2.7 in) thick walls and a propulsive power that is three times that of the human heart. The main arteries in the neck have valves, whereas only veins have valves in other mammals. A special network of blood vessels, called the rete mirabile, at the base of the brain acts like a shock-absorber. It stores excess blood when the head is lowered and blood rushes downwards, which could damage the sensitive brain vessels, and it stores sufficient blood to supply the brain when the head is held upright.
Feeding spectrum Highly selective browser
Water dependent Occasionally
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Giraffe: Giraffa camelopardalis
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Common duiker - Sylvicapra grimmia
Habitat Wooded termite mounds, thicket and woodland with ample undergrowth
Social structure Solitary
Food Preference Browse, occasionally carnivorous
Sexual maturity ♂ 1 ½ years ♀ 1 year
Gestation 6 ½ - 7 months
First lamb 1 ½ – 2 years
Lambing period All year
Adult Mass 16 – 18 kg (35 – 40 lbs.)
Longevity 10 – 12 years
General Ecology It is widely accepted that common duiker are at times carnivorous, eating insects, birds and even small mammals.
Feeding spectrum Selective feeder
Water dependent No
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Image source: Africa Geographic: Common Duiker. © Masteraah
Image source: www.krugerpark.co.za
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Impala - Aepyceros melampus
Habitat
Open woodland, grassland, wooded termite mounds, water dependent
Social structure Territorial male with female herd and bachelor groups
Food Preference Grass and browse, attracted to burnt areas
Sexual maturity ♂ 2 – 3 years ♀ 1 ½ years
Gestation 6 ½ months
First Lamb 2 years
Rutting period February – April
Lambing period October – December
Age at weaning 6 months
Adult Mass 40 – 65 kg (88 – 143 lbs.)
Longevity 14 years
General Ecology Impala are adaptable animals, breed well and their venison is of high quality. They are therefore a popular species for game ranching. Due to their variable diet, impala will often retain a reasonable condition when other game begin to starve during droughts. Impala can be destructive to their environment when overpopulated and their numbers should be controlled rigorously
Feeding spectrum mixed feeder
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Impala: Aepyceros melampus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Roan antelope - Hippotragus equinus
Habitat Medium to tall grassland and open woodland, particularly sensitive to competition from other game, water dependent.
Social structure Dominant male with breeding herd, solitary males and bachelor groups
Food Preference Selective grazers preferring medium to tall grasses
Sexual maturity ♂ 2 ½ years ♀ 2 years
Gestation 9 months
First calving 3 – 4 years
Calving period 11 monthly intervals
Age at weaning 6 months
Adult Mass 270 kg (595 lbs.)
Longevity 17 years
General Ecology Roan antelope are critical in their habitat requirements, needing lightly wooded savanna or open woodland with extensive areas of medium to tall grassland and access to permanent water. Roan antelope hide their calves for 6 weeks before joining them with the herd. They are valuable animals for trophy hunting, live sales and tourism.
Feeding spectrum Highly selective feeder
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Roan antelope: Hippotragus equinus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Sable antelope - Hippotragus niger
Habitat Open tree-veld with scattered low shrubs bordering wetlands and with medium to tall grassland, water dependent.
Social structure Territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups
Food Preference Highly selective, mostly grass, some browse
Sexual maturity ♂ 3 years ♀ 2 years
Gestation 8 ½ - 9 months
First calving 3 years
Mating period July and December – February
Calving period January – March and September – November
Age at weaning 8 months
Adult Mass 180 – 230kg (395 – 510 lbs.)
Longevity 17 years
General Ecology Sable antelope are dependent on cover and surface water for survival. They prefer open woodland adjacent to open water or drainage lines. The bulls are territorial and fight viciously, even to death, when they are confined to a small area and cannot avoid each other. Sable antelope hide their calves for about two weeks before joining them with the herd. They are valuable animals for trophy hunting, live sales and tourism. Sable antelope are not as sensitive to the presence of other game as roan antelope are, but they are nevertheless easily outcompeted by less selective feeders utilizing the same habitat
Feeding spectrum Highly selective feeder
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Sable antelope: Hippotragus niger
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
African buffalo - Syncerus caffer
Habitat Open woodland, forest, grassland, riverine vegetation, water dependent
Social structure Variable
Food Preference Grass, roughage feeder
Sexual maturity 3 ½ – 5 years
Gestation 11 months
Mating period December – May
Calving period November – April
First calving 4 – 5 years
Calving interval 13 – 18 monthly intervals
Age at weaning 7 months
Adult Mass 600 – 750 kg (1320 – 1650 lbs.)
Longevity 20 – 22 years
General Ecology African buffalo are roughage feeders and have developed the most efficient system among African ruminants to digest fibrous plant material. African buffalo will trample down stands of tall grass and therefore open the area for other species. African buffalo are gregarious animals living in breeding herds of up to several thousand. African buffalo are valuable animals on a game ranch but are also potentially dangerous. African buffalo are prone to tuberculosis, and disease-free buffalo are in great demand.
Feeding spectrum Bulk feeders
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
African buffalo: Syncerus caffer
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Greater kudu - Tragelaphus strepsiceros
Habitat Thicket, open woodland, wooded termite mounds, water dependent
Social structure Female herds and separate male groups
Food Preference Forbs browse and occasionally fresh grass
Sexual maturity ♂ 14 months ♀ 18 months
Gestation 7 ½ months
First calving 2 – ½ years
Rutting period May – July
Calving period January – March
Adult Mass 150 – 250 kg (330 - 550 lbs.)
Longevity ♂ 9 years ♀ 15 years
General Ecology Kudu are excellent jumpers and are known to clear fences of 2 ½ metres (8.2 ft).
Feeding spectrum Highly selective browser
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Greater kudu: Tragelaphus strepsiceros
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Bushbuck - Tragelaphus scriptus
Habitat
Thickets, woodland with dense undergrowth, termite mounds, vicinity of permanent water.
Social structure Territorial, mostly solitary
Food Preference Browse
Sexual maturity ♂ 12 months ♀ 14 months
Gestation 6 months
First Lamb 2 years
Mating period April – May, October – November
Lambing period October – November, April – May
Adult Mass 50 kg (110 lbs.)
Longevity 10 – 12 years
General Ecology Bushbuck are secretive, mostly nocturnal animals. Their acute senses make it possible for bushbuck to survive under heavy persecution and even close to human habituation. Bushbuck are vicious fighters and will fight to the death. They easily attack hunters when wounded.
Feeding spectrum Highly selective browser
Water dependent Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Bushbuck: Tragelaphus scriptus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Waterbuck - Kobus ellipsiprymnus
Habitat
Woodland, reeds, flood-plain, within 2 km (1.2 mi) of water
Social structure
Territorial males, bachelor groups and loose female groups
Food Preference
Roughage feeder, mostly grass, attracted to burnt areas
Sexual maturity
♂ 3 years ♀ 2 – ½ years
Gestation
9 months
First calving
3 – 3 ½ years
Mating period
March – October
Calving period
November – June (peak in January)
Age at weaning
9 – 10 months
Adult Mass
250 kg (550 lbs.)
Longevity
16 years
General Ecology
Exceptionally dependant on water
Feeding spectrum
Highly selective grazer
Water dependent
Yes
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Waterbuck: Kobus ellipsiprymnus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Eland - Taurotragus oryx
Habitat Versatile from semi-arid scrub to mountain grassland and open woodland
Social structure Loose male and female groups
Food Preference Predominantly browse
Sexual maturity ♂ 18 – 24 months ♀ 15 – 18 months
Gestation 9 months
First calving 2 ½ – 3 years
Mating peaks September – October, December – January
Calving peaks June – July, September – October
Calving period 12 monthly intervals
Age at weaning 6 months
Adult Mass 450 – 700 kg (990 – 1540 lbs.)
Longevity ♂ 15 years ♀ 20 years
General Ecology Eland are gregarious animals, occurring mostly in small herds. Sometimes large aggregations of several hundred animals are found. Herds tend to break up into nursery and bachelor herds during the calving season and re-unite later. Weaned calves join others in the nursery herd, where bonds between these youngsters’ form that are stronger and last longer than the mother-calf bond. Despite their heavy body weight, eland are agile and excellent jumpers that clear 2 metre (6 ½ ft.) high fences with ease
Feeding spectrum Mixed feeder
Water dependent Occasionally
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Eland: Taurotragus oryx
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Carnivores
The presence of large carnivores in an area is very valuable for tourism purposes. However, introducing large carnivores to a reserve or game ranch requires careful consideration. They generally require large home ranges and do not often tolerate other animals of the same species in their ranges. They also require high prey densities and can have a considerable effect on prey populations, which must be considered. Expert advice should be sought when planning to introduce large carnivores.
Lion: Panthera leo
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Spotted hyaena - Crocuta crocuta
Habitat Open woodland and plains, dependent on prey availability and water
Social structure Matriarchal clans
Food Preference Mostly mammals, also birds and reptiles
Sexual maturity ♂ 2 years ♀ 3 years
Gestation 3 ½ months
First Litter 3 ½ – 4 yearly intervals
Litter size 1 – 4 cubs
Birth interval 16 – 19 months
Breeding season All year
Eyes opening At birth
Adult Mass ♂ 50 – 75 kg (110 – 165 lbs.) ♀ 55 – 80 kg (120 – 180 lbs.)
Longevity 40 years
General Ecology Abundant food and permanent water are essential requirements for spotted hyaenas. They are social animals that live in matriarchal clans of 4 – 18 adults, led by a dominant female. High-ranking males have mating status and move with the clan, whereas subordinate males move solitarily. Spotted hyaenas are notorious scavengers, but also efficient hunters.
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Spotted hyaena: Crocuta crocuta
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Cheetah - Acinonyx jubatus
Habitat Open plains and savanna woodlands
Social structure Female with cubs, male groups or solitary
Food Preference Birds, reptiles and medium-sized mammals up to 60 kg (132 lbs.)
Sexual maturity 1 ½ – 2 years
Gestation 3 months
First Litter 2 ½ – 3 years
Litter size 3 – 6 cubs
Birth interval 18 – 24 months
Birth mass 250 – 300g (9 – 10 ½ ounces)
Breeding season All year
Eyes opening 10 – 12 days
Adult Mass Male 40 – 60 kg (90 – 130 lbs.) ♀ 35 – 50 kg (77 – 110 lbs.)
Longevity 16 years
General Ecology Cheetah stalk prey animals carefully, and prey are brought down after a final chase that can take several hundred metres, during which cheetah can reach a speed of up to 116 km/h (75 mph). Small or medium-sized animals up to 60 kg (130 lbs.) Are their preferred food. As with other solitary predators, small game ranches are unsuited to keep cheetah for genetic and ecological reasons. Cheetah ranges are large, and subadults must be able to emigrate to find new ranges.
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Cheetah: Acinonyx jubatus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Wild Dog – Lycaon pictus
Habitat Open plains species, avoiding forests or thick woodland
Social structure Gregarious packs lead by an alpha female and male
Food Preference Small, medium and large mammals
Sexual maturity 2 years
Gestation 2 ½ months
First Litter 2 ½ years
Litter interval 12 months
Age at weaning 3 months
Litter size 2 – 19; average 10
Breeding Season April to September; peaks during May and June
Hunting success 40 – 85%; depending on number of dogs participating
Adult Mass ♂ 24 kg (53 lbs.) ♀ 20 kg (44 lbs.)
Longevity 9 - 10 years
General Ecology An endangered species, highly susceptible to disease. They are easily bred in captivity, and there has been mixed success with re-introduction programmes.
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Wild Dog: Lycaon pictus
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Leopard - Panthera pardus
Habitat Versatile, great adaptability
Social structure Solitary, female with dependent cubs
Food Preference Mammals (antelope) birds, reptiles, fish
Sexual maturity ♂ 3 years ♀ 2 ½ – 3 years
Gestation 3 – 3 ½ months
First Litter 3 years old
Litter size 1 – 3 cubs
Birth interval 18 months
Birth mass 50 – 60g (1 ½ - 2 ounces)
Breeding season All year
Eyes opening 6 – 10 days
Adult Mass ♂ 50 - 60 kg (110 – 132 lbs.) ♀ 25 – 40kg (55 – 88 lbs.)
Longevity 12 years
General Ecology Leopard show a wide habitat tolerance. They are masters of seclusion and cover is therefore very important. Both males and females occupy territories in which they don’t tolerate other leopards of the same sex. A male’s territory usually overlaps with those of several females. Leopards are opportunistic hunters, their prey selection depending largely on what is available. Prey is stalked carefully and then brought down after a short chase. Due to their large home ranges and intolerance of other leopards of the same sex, it is impossible to maintain genetically and ecologically viable leopard populations on small areas. They are also not kept in by fencing
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48
Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Leopard: Panthera pardus
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This course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied, distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
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Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Lion - Panthera leo
Habitat Versatile, mostly dependent on prey density
Social structure Prides of females with cubs, males
Food Preference Larger mammals, birds, reptiles
Sexual maturity ♂ 2 ½ years ♀ 3 years
Gestation 3 ½ months
First Litter 3 ½ – 4 years
Litter size 1 – 6 cubs
Birth interval 2 years
Birth mass 2 ½ kg
Breeding season All year
Eyes opening 6 – 12 days
Adult Mass ♂ 180 – 200kg (400 – 440 lbs.) ♀ 120 – 130kg (265 – 285 lbs.)
Longevity 13 – 15 years
General Ecology Lions are the only social cats, living and hunting in prides. A pride can number from a few individuals to more than 30, and usually comprises several related females with their cubs and one or more resident males. Lions occupy home ranges and the entire range is actively defended. Their territoriality is less pronounced in areas where large migrations of prey occur. Hunting takes place at night, with group hunts being more successful than individual attacks. Lions feed on a variety of prey according to what is available but prefer medium-sized animals from 50 – 300 kg (110 – 660 lbs.). Establishment of lion populations on game ranches or reserves is often problematic as substantial prey populations are required to maintain lion populations. It is estimated that an average adult lion requires about 3650kg (8050 lbs.) of live prey mass per year, which represents 91 impala, 20 blue wildebeest or 18 zebra per annum. Lions are highly attractive for tourism, and could be viable for introduction for this purpose, all factors being considered.
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This course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied, distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
50
Suitable Game Species © Copyright
Lion: Panthera leo