Morphological Operations_ Derivational and Inflectional Morphology_Hierarchy and Compositionality

transcript

Tues Oct 2

Morphemes and Morphological Processes

• the study of words, their parts, and their structure

But what is a word?

“an abstract sign that is the smallest grammatically independent unit of language” (p. 57)

Then what is a morpheme?

“the smallest unit of language that combines both a form and a meaning” (p. 61)

stored in the lexicon

Morphology

allomorphs

Review: Morphemes & allomorphs

morpheme

(‘not’)

[ɪn] [ɪŋ] [ɪm]

[ɪnɛdɨbl2 ] [ɪŋkɹɛdɨbl2 ] [ɪmpɑsɨbl2 ]

(‘inedible’) (‘incredible’) (‘impossible’)

=not edible =not credible =not possible

What linguistic factors condition allomorphy?

1. Phonological environmente.g., English plural, Turkish vowel harmony (pp. 65-66)

2. Morphological categories

e.g., Verb classes, noun classes, case markers

3. Semantic factorse.g., positive/negative, animate/inanimate, proper/common noun, sg/pl

Conditioned Allomorphy

Morphological categories

Example: Avatime

3. Semantic factors

e.g., positive/negative, animate/inanimate, proper/common noun, sg/pl

Semantic factorse.g., positive/negative, animate/inanimate, proper/common noun, sg/pl

Example: English (p. 65)

unwell vs. *unill

unclean vs. *undirty

Example: Russian

3. Semantic factorse.g., positive/negative, animate/inanimate, proper/common noun, sg/pl

*These are not mutually exclusive!

unclean vs. *undirty

[ʌŋklin]

Morphemes

Lexemes

Grammatical morphemes

• nouns• verbs• adjectives

• grammatical info• relationships

between lexemes• (slight)

modifications of meaning or grammatical category

A lexeme that can function as a stem

Any form of a word (simple or complex) to which affixes are added

A grammatical morpheme that must be attached (bound) to a stem

More terminology…

establishmentdis + + arian + ismanti +

Free morpheme

A morpheme that can stand alone and be used as a word by itself

Bound morpheme

A morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme

More terminology…

Lexemes are not always freeItalian:

lavor-ano a casawork-PRES.3PL at home‘They work at home’

Grammatical morphemes are not always bound Koranko (Kastenholz 1987)

à yá kɔQ lɔmabolɔ kári3SG. PAST tree-branch break‘S/he broke a branch’

pp. 62-63

• rehospitalization

• incomprehensibility

• unprepared

• disenfranchisement

How many morphemes in each word?

→re+ hospital+iz+ation

→in+comprehen+sibil+ity

→un+prepare+d

→dis+en+franchise+ment

So who decides what is and isn’t a morpheme? It’s not always obvious. Linguists might also investigate:

- historical forms- pyschological perceptions

Identifying morphemes

The musicians reconsidered their director’s unusual proposal.

Free grammatical morpheme (indicating

definiteness)Root lexeme Root lexeme Root lexeme

Root lexeme Root lexeme

Bound derivational morpheme ( meaning a

person)

Free grammatical morpheme (indicating

possession)

Bound derivational morpheme ( meaning a

person)

Bound derivational morpheme ( meaning

‘again’)

Bound derivational morpheme

( meaning ‘not’)

Bound derivational morpheme

(verb noun)

Bound inflectional morpheme (indicating

plural)

possession)

The musicians reconsidered their director’s unusual proposal.

Can you identify the morphemes in the following English sentence?

Morphological Operations

Morphological OperationsAffixation: adding a morpheme to change or inflect a root

PREFIXES

• English:

[in-] + human = inhuman (‘not human’)

PREFIX ROOT

Chichewa:

Mkângo s- ú- na- ká-ngo-wá- phwányá maûngu

3lion NEG-3SUBJ-PAST-go-just-6OBJ-smash 6pumpkins

‘The lion did not just go smash them, the pumpkins’

Morphological OperationsAffixation: adding a morpheme to change or inflect a root

SUFFIXES

• English:

reason + [-able] = reasonable

ROOT SUFFIX

• Turkish:

Avrupa- li- laʂ- tir- il- a- mi- yacak- lar- dan-sin-iz

Europe-an-ize-CAUSE-PASSIVE-POTENTIAL-NEG-FUT- PART-PL- ABL- 2nd-PL

‘You (all) are among those who will not be able to be caused to become like Europeans’

Affixation: adding a morpheme to change or inflect a root

CIRCUMFIXES

• German:

[ge]+zeig+[t]

PAST show PAST

*gezeig

*zeigt

Affixation: adding a morpheme to change or inflect a root

INFIXES

• English:

un + friggin + believe+able

• Tagalog: tulong ‘help’ t-um-ulong ‘helped’

bili ‘buy’ b-um-ili ‘bought’

• Arabic: ‘ktb’ = ‘write’

katab ‘to write’ kitaab ‘book’

kataba ‘he wrote’ kutub ‘books’

kutib ‘has been written’ kaatib ‘clerk’

aktub ‘be writing’ maktaba ‘library, bookstore

Ablaut: one vowel is substituted for another in lexical root

• English:

fall / fell

• Latin:

agō / ēgī

PRES PERF

Suppletion: replacement of most or all sounds

• English:

buy / bought

go / went

Suprasegmental change: changes in tone or stress

• English (stress shift):

permit (V) vs. permit (N)

• Somali (tone shift):

díbi / dibí

bull / bulls(Lecarme, 2002)

Reduplication: the repetition of some segment

• Pangasinan

Too ‘man’ to-too ‘people’

Bii ‘woman’ bi-bii ‘people

Plato ‘plate’ pa-plato ‘plates’

Baso ‘glass’ ba-baso ‘glasses’

Do we have reduplication in English?

Morphological Operations…at least one native speaker does!

Yu (2004) analyzed partial reduplication and the Homeric infix [-mə].

http://washo.uchicago.edu/pub/nels34.pdf

The “Homeric infix” [-mə]

• Saxa-ma-phone

• Dia-ma-lect

• Secre-ma-tery

• Hippo-ma-potamus

Note, however, that these words all have a minimum of three syllables…in cases of words with two syllables, what would Homer do?

Partial reduplication

According to grammaticality judgments…

*ob-ma-boe oboe-ma-boe

*pur-ma-ple purple-ma-ple

*par-ma-ty party-ma-ty

*pig-ma-gy piggy-ma-gy

Derivational and Inflectional MorphologyTue Oct 9

Morphology: Review

1. Morphology: study of words and their parts

2. Lexicon

3. Lexemes vs. grammatical morphemes

4. Bound vs. free morphemes

5. Morphological Operations

Morphological Operations: Overview

Affixation

•Prefix

•Suffix

•Infix

•Circumfix

Root changes

•Ablaut

•Suppletion

Suprasegmental changes

•Stress shift

•Tone shift

Reduplication

Derivational Morphology

Derivational MorphologyTwo main “purposes” for morphological processes:

Inflectionaladds grammatical

information to a lexeme

Derivationalcreates new lexemes

from existing ones

call + -ed = called fashion + -able = fashionable

Change in meaning and/or grammatical category

Person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, case

Which one happens first?

Two derivational techniques:

Affixationprefix, suffix,

circumfix, infix

Compoundingconcatenation of 2 or

more lexemes

sing + er = singer green + house = greenhouse

Derivational MorphologyCompounding and recursionToe

Toe + nail

Toenail + clipper

Toenail clipper + accident

Toenail clipper accident + insurance

Toenail clipper accident insurance + company

Toenail clipper accident insurance company + employee

Toenail clipper accident insurance company employee + benefits

Toenail clipper accident insurance company employee benefits + package

‘toe nail clipper accident…’

Notice it is the word to the right that identifies what the compound word is

= head of the compound

In English, compounds are (generally) right-headed• Compare chocolate milk to milk chocolate

Can you think of any other left-headed compounds in English?

Derivational MorphologyWhy does headedness matter?

Headedness will often identify the part of speech

• A+N: soft+ball = N

• V+N: drive+way = N

• P+N: over+sight = N

• N+A: head+strong = A

• V+A: punch+drunk = A

• P+A: under+ripe = A

**Sometimes, the category of the compound is unrelated to the categories of its parts:

P+N: over + weight = AV+A: speak + easy = NV+P: kick + back = V

Derivational MorphologyCan you identify the headedness of the following compounds?

Hebrew:orex – din tapúax-adamaconductor-law apple-earth‘lawyer’ ‘potato’

Japanese:hai-zara kosi-kakeruash-plate waist-hang‘ashtray’ ‘to sit down’

Jacaltek (Popti’): potx’-om txitam ‘il-om ‘anmakill-er pig watch-er people‘pig killer’ ‘people watcher’

Derivational MorphologyAffixes can change the grammatical category of the new word:

English:

sing + er = singer

music + ian = musician

Chinese:

gongyè-huà dòngwù-xué kexué-jia

industry-V animal-’ology’ science-ist

‘industrialize’ ‘zoology’ ‘scientist’

German:

Zerstör-ung Einsam-keit erb-lichdestroy-N lonely-N inherit-A‘destruction’ ‘loneliness’ ‘hereditary’

Sometimes, a lexeme can undergo a grammatical category change without any visible morphological affixation.

These are cases of zero derivation and are represented like this:

cookV cook-øN

Interesting and important: Derivational affixes cannot be put on any old lexeme!

Whether or not a derivational morpheme can be affixed depends on the grammatical category of the lexeme being modified

Consider the following:

un-coffee• [un-] needs to be affixed to an adjective or a verb; coffee is a noun

read-ize• [-ize] needs to be affixed to a noun or an adjective; read is a verb

bacon-ness• [-ness] needs to be affixed to an adjective; bacon is a noun

How about bacon-y-ness?

• Affixes can change the category of a lexeme

• [-ness] can only join an adjective,

and makes the new word a noun

• [-y] can only join a noun, and makes the new word an adjective

• So, first bacon must be made into an adjective (bacon-y), and then it is eligible to take [-ness] as a second suffix.

Affixation is a step-by-step process – once one modification is made, then the new lexeme can be assessed and modified again

• *bacon-ness-y

Create an English word that you’ve never heard before, made up of at least 4 morphemes. For example: semiunducklike (as in, ‘A rhinoceros isn’t like a duck at all, but a goose is only semiunducklike’)

1. Indicate the morphemes that make it up.

2. Provide the meaning of each morpheme and state whether it is (a) free or bound; (b) a root, derivational, or inflectional; and (c) if an affix, what lexical categor(y/ies) it can combine with.

3. Provide the meaning of the whole word.

Activity

Inflectional Morphology

Inflectionaladds grammatical information to a

lexeme

call + -ed = called

• Phi features • Person, gender, number

• Case• Verbal morphology

• Tense, mood, aspect

This is a wug. These are two _____.

wugs[wʌgz]

Inflectional MorphologyBefore, wug was a noun. Now, let’s make it a verb.

• I ____________. (present)

• wug

• He is _____________ right now. (present progressive)

• wugging

• They _________ last night. (past tense)

• wugged

• Don’t _______ me, bro! (indicative)

• wug

• Possible irregular past?

• Wog? Waug?

Phi features • Person (first, second, third)• Number (singular, plural)• Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter)

Evidence of these features can be seen on nouns, verbs, and adjectives

Person feature• First person – the speaker, writer, language user

• Represented as: [1]

• Second person – the addressee, the reader, the hearer• Represented as: [2]

• Third person – ‘the other guy’• Represented as: [3]

Inflectional MorphologyPerson features in nouns:• English:

• [1]: I, me, my, mine, we, our, ours• [2]: you, your, yours...yous guys, y’all • [3]: it, he, she, his, her, hers, its, they, them, their, Bob

Person features in verbs:• Spanish:

• [1]: habl-o, habl-amos• [2]: habl-as, habl-áis• [3]: habl-a, habl-an

The morphemes here are not strictly person features, though!

Inflectional MorphologyNumber feature• Singular – one entity being referenced

• Represented as: [SG]

• Dual – two entities being reference• Represented as: [DU]

• Paucal – a few entities being references (as opposed to many)• Represented as: [PAUCAL]

• Plural – multiple entities being referenced• Represented as: [PL]

Inflectional MorphologyNumber features on nouns:

• English: singular – plural

• cat ([SG]) vs. cat-s ([PL])

• Slovenian: singular – dual – paucal – plural (*with numerals)

en volk ([SG])

dva volkova ([DU])

*trije volkovi ([PAU])

pet volkov ([PL])

Inflectional MorphologyNumber features on verbs:• French copula (être ‘to be’): singular -- plural

• suis [1SG] vs. sommes [1PL]• es [2SG] vs. êtes [2PL]• est [3SG] vs. sont [3PL]

• Slovenian: tres- ‘to shake’• tresem [1SG] vs. treseva [1DU] vs. tresemo [1PL]• treseš [2SG] vs. treseta [2DU] vs. tresete [2PL]• trese [3SG] vs. treseta [3DU] vs. tresejo [3PL]

Number feature on adjectives:

• Spanish adjectives:

el gato grande los gato-s grande-s

Number is on the determiner (article los), too!

Inflectional MorphologyNumber features: Some messy bits

Irregular plurals – memorized forms

Noncount (mass) nouns are have no plural form, but they’re not exactly singular either• e.g., grass, wine, pasta

Some languages (like Chinese) reflect number not through a singular/plural system, but by using classifiers• e.g., five person, this book (p. 82)

Gender/class feature

• Gender can, but does not necessarily refer to, biological gender

• Grammatical gender is a way of dividing nouns into classes

• Gender is good for helping to determine the adjectives, articles, etc. associated with a particular noun

• Grammatical gender can include

• Masculine (represented as: [MASC])

• Feminine (represented as [FEM])

• Neuter (represented as [NEUT])

• Or, if more than three groups, classes can be referred to by a numeral (e.g., Avatime)

Inflectional MorphologyGender/class feature on nouns:

• German gender (here, gender is reflected by the article)

• Der junge Mann (MASC.) ‘the young man’

• Die junge Frau (FEM.) ‘the young woman’

• Das junge Mädchen (NEUT.) ‘the young girl’

• Swahili noun class (on noun, adjective, numeral, and verb)

ki-kapu ki-kubwa ki-moja ki-lianguka

7-basket 7-large 7-one 7-fell

Dyirbal

Inflectional MorphologyCase morphology

• Case is a grammatical feature used to identify the relationship of a noun to a particular action

• I.e., subject, object, instrument, etc.

• In most languages you’ll come across:

• Subject = nominative case

• Represented as [NOM]

• Object = accusative case

• Represented as [ACC]

• Indirect objects = dative case

• Represented as [DAT]

• Possessions = genitive case

• Represented as [GEN]

Inflectional MorphologyCase features on pronouns

• English pronouns

• NOM: I, you, he, she, it, we, they

• ACC: me, you, him, her, it, us, them

• GEN: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs

• Consider the following:

Me gave she us

I gave she us

I gave her us

I gave her ours.

Inflectional MorphologyDefiniteness Features

• Definite: refers to a specific, known entity

• Represented as: [DEF]

• Indefinite: refers to a general, unknown entity

• Represented as: [INDEF]

Definiteness features on articles

• English

• Definite: the wrestler

• Indefinite: a wrestler

Inflectional MorphologyVerbal Morphology

• Verbs can be inflected to agree in person, number, and gender with a noun (not always the subject!)

French:

J’ai acheté la voiture

I-have[1SG] bought the.FEM car

Je l’ai achetée

I it-have bought.FEM

• Verbs are also with inflected with information about the action – when it happened, whether it is completed, what the speaker believes about it

Inflectional MorphologyTense feature – communicates information about when an action takes place

• Past: action happened prior to some other action

• Represented as: [PAST]

• Present: action currently (or habitually) taking place

• Represented as: [PRES]

• Future: action will take place

• Represented as: [FUT]

Inflectional MorphologyTense features on verbs:

French:

• Past tense:

Le chat mange-ait du jambon.

The.MASC cat eat -PAST.3.SG some ham

‘The cat ate ham’

• Present Tense:

Le chat mange du jambon.

The.MASC cat eat.PRES.3.SG some ham

‘The cat eats ham’

• Future Tense:

Le chat manger-a du jambon.

The.MASC cat eat -FUT.3.SG some ham

‘The cat will eat ham’

Aspect feature – encodes information about the completion or repetition of an action• Progressive: the action is ongoing (possibly will never

be complete)• Represented as: [PROG]

• Imperfect(ive): the action is not completed• Represented as: [IMP]

• Perfect(ive): the action is completed• Represented as: [PERF]

Inflectional MorphologyAspect feature on verbs:

English: Progressive:

Ben is fixing the bathroom.

be.3.SG.PRES fix.PROG

Ben was fixing the bathroom

be.3.SG.PRES fix.PROG

French: Imperfective:

Il faisait beau hier.

It make.3.SG.IMP nice yesterday

‘It was nice out yesterday’

Chinese: Perfective:

wo chi-le fàn zài zou

I eat-PERF rice then go

‘I will go after I eat’

Inflectional MorphologyMood feature – encodes information about the speaker’s belief, opinion, or attitude toward the action

• Indicative: used for declarative sentences

• Represented as: [IND]

• Interrogative: used for questions

• Represented as: [INT]

• Imperative: used for giving commands

• Represented as: [IMP]

• Conditional: used for saying what one would or should do

• Represented as: [COND]

Inflectional MorphologyMood features on verbs:

English:

Indicative:

Thor speaks Icelandic.

Interrogative:

Does Thor speak Icelandic?

Imperative:

Speak in Icelandic, Thor!

Conditional:

If Thor could speak Icelandic, I’d be proud.

Inflectional MorphologyIdentify the features involved in the following English forms:• She

• [3.SG.FEM.NOM]• Runs

• [3.SG]• Us

• [1.PL.ACC] – why not a gender feature?• Yours

• [2.GEN] – why not a number feature?

And now, the only inflectional morphology video on YouTube:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XbI-fDzUJXI

Hierarchical Structure and Compositionality

Hierarchical StructureThe step-by-step affixation process can be shown through a hierarchical structure, so we can see

• What affixes join the new lexeme

• In what order affixes join the new lexeme

• What effect (if any) affixation has on the grammatical category of the lexeme

Re- useV

Adjective

useV -ableun-

Adjective

Hierarchical Structure

dehumidifier

humid humidify dehumidify dehumidifier

= ( { dev [ ( humida ) ifyv ] } ern )

2 ROOT 1 3

= humidadj + -ifyverb + de-verb + -ernoun

de- humidA -ify -er

Consider the following derived lexeme, and try to figure out in what order the morphemes joined the root

dehumidifier

AmbiguitySome derived words are ambiguous, meaning they can have two different meanings depending on the interpretation

We can represent these multiple interpretations in different ways (with different hierarchical trees)

Consider this word:

• Interpretation 1: not able to be locked

• Interpretation 2: able to be unlocked

unlockable

Ambiguity‘not able to be locked’ ‘able to be unlocked’

CompositionalityThis brings us to the notion of compositionality

• Words can be composed by joining two parts together

• This cements the relationship between these two parts; they now form a unit that can be manipulated again

• I.e., we could add another derivational morpheme, or an inflectional morpheme

• Derivational: [[re-] + [use]] = [reuse] + [-able] = [reusable]

• Inflectional: [re-] + [use] = [reuse] + [-ing] = [reusing]

Compositionality is referenced elsewhere in linguistics (syntax, semantics)

• Depending on the type of unit that you’re forming, different operations can be performed on it

Morphological Operations_ Derivational and Inflectional Morphology_Hierarchy and Compositionality

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