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Organizational Behavior 2
INTRODUCTIONMotivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation.Individuals differ in their basic motivational drive.The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.”
DefinitionThe processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements:
Intensity – how hard a person triesDirection – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goalsPersistence – how long a person can maintain effort
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What Is Motivation?The individual internal process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior; the personal “force” that causes us to behave in a particular way
Morale• An employee’s feelings about his or her
job and superiors and about the firm itself
• High morale results from the satisfaction of needs or as a result of the job and leads to dedication and loyalty
• Low morale leads to shoddy work, absenteeism, and high turnover rates
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Work Motivation
Theories of Work Motivation• Internal (Content) Theories
• Identify factors within an individual that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior.
• External (Process) Theories• Describe how personal and situational
(environmental) factors interact and influence each other to produce certain kinds of behavior
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Theories of Motivation
Content Theories• Identify internal factors
influencing motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG
McClelland’s Need
Herzberg’s Motivator-
Hygiene
Process Theories• Identify the process
by which internal factors and cognitions influence motivation
Adam’s Equity
Vroom’s Expectancy
Goal Setting Theory
Early Theories of MotivationThese early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory YHerzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryMcClelland’s Theory of Needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsA sequence of human needs (personal requirements) in the order of their importancePhysiological needs—survival
Safety needs—physical and emotional safety
Social needs—love and affection and a sense of belonging
Esteem needs—respect, recognition, and a sense of our own accomplishment and worth
Self-actualization needs—to grow and develop and become all that we are capable of being
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Characteristics of a Self-Actualized Person
efficient and accurate in perceiving reality are accepting of themselves, of other people and of nature are spontaneous in thought and emotion, rather than artificial are problem-centered - are concerned with the eternal philosophical questions of humankind are independent and autonomous have a continued “freshness of appreciation” of ordinary events often experience “oceanic feelings” that is a sense of oneness with nature identify with all of humanity and are democratic and respectful of others form very deep ties but only with a few people appreciate for its own sake the process of doing things have a philosophical, thoughtful, non-hostile sense of humor have a childlike and fresh creativity and inventiveness maintain an inner detachment from the culture in which they live may appear temperamental or ruthless as they are strong and independent people guided by their own inner visions
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryThree groups of core needs:
Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)Removed the hierarchical assumption
Can be motivated by all three at once
Popular, but not accurate, theory
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).Managers used a set of assumptions based on their viewThe assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory.
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Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory• Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate and
distinct dimensions• Motivation factors
• Job factors that increase motivation but whose absence does not necessarily result in dissatisfaction
• Hygiene factors• Job factors that reduce dissatisfaction when present to
an acceptable degree but that do not necessarily result in higher levels of motivation.
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Effects of Maintenance and Motivational Factors
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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
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McClelland’s Learned Needs
Need for Achievement• a need to accomplish goals, excel, and strive
continually to do things better.
Need for Affiliation• desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
Need for Power• the need to influence and lead others and be
in control of one’s environment
Performance Predictions for High nAch
People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
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CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
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Locke’s Goal-Setting TheoryBasic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
Difficult Goals:Focus and direct attentionEnergize the person to work harderDifficulty increases persistenceForce people to be more effective and efficient
Relationship between goals and performance depends on: Goal commitment (the more public the better!)Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)Culture
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Goal Setting Theory
Function of Goals• basis of motivation• direct behavior
• For goals to be effective– individuals must be aware of goals– must accept the goals
• Factors that influence effectiveness of goal setting– goals must be specific– goals should be difficult but attainable
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Guidelines for SMART Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
Give feedback regularly!
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Locke’s Model of Goal Setting
Encouraging thedevelopment of goal-attainment strategies
or action plans
Increasingone’s persistence
Regulatingone’s effort
Directingone’s attention
Goalsmotivate the
individualby...
Taskperformance
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. Higher efficacy is related to:
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.
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Given Hard Goal
Higher Self-Set Goal
Increased Confidence
Higher Performance
Increasing Self-EfficacyEnactive masteryMost important source of efficacyGaining relevant experience with task or job“Practice makes perfect”Vicarious modelingIncreasing confidence by watching others perform the taskMost effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herselfVerbal persuasionMotivation through verbal convictionArousalGetting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete taskCan hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
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Adams’ Equity TheoryEmployees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
Under rewarded states cause anger
Over rewarded states cause guiltTension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity
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Key Factors in Equity Assessment
Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”
Can be four different situations:Self-Inside
The person’s experience in a different job in the same organizationSelf-Outside
The person’s experience in a different job in a different organizationOther-Inside
Another individual or group within the organizationOther-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organization
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Reactions to InequityEmployee behaviors to create equity:Change inputs (slack off)Change outcomes (increase output)Distort/change perceptions of selfDistort/change perceptions of othersChoose a different referent personLeave the field (quit the job)Propositions relating to inequitable pay:Paid by time:
Overrewarded employees produce more Underrewarded employees produce less with low qualityPaid by quality:
Overrewarded employees give higher qualityUnderrewarded employees make more of low quality
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Expectancy Theory – Victor Vroom
Motivation depends on how much we want something and on how likely we think we are to get itImplications are that managers must recognize thatEmployees work for a variety of reasonsThe reasons, or expected outcomes, may change over timeIt is necessary to show employees how they can attain the outcomes they desire
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Expectancy Theory
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The Expectancy Theory of MotivationThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)
Five Components• Job outcomes (e.g., pay, promotions)• Valence - attractiveness of the outcomes to
employees• Instrumentality - strength of belief that
performance results in outcome attainment• Expectancy - strength of belief that effort will
result in successful performance• Force - amount of pressure within the person
to be motivated
Guidelines for the Use ofExpectancy Theory
Practical use of the theory by managers:Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.Link desired outcomes and desired performance.Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.Make sure the rewards are large enough.Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
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