Post on 15-Jan-2022
transcript
Natural enemies used in biological control
Dr. Mor Salomon
The Israel Cohen Institute for Biological controlThe Plants production and
marketing board
What are Natural Enemies?
Organisms that kill or reduce the population of another organism
Predators
Parasitoids
Nematodes
Pathogens
many individuals a singe individual
Development achieved by feeding on other organisms:
Free living Bound to their host
Biological control
Predators Parasitoids
Feed on another organism
Predators
Mosquitofish
Green-rice leafhopperMosquito larvae
Grasshopper
Acridotheres tristis Ducks
MaynaGambusia affinis
Important natural enemies for applied biological control
are Insects & Mites
Predators
Most predators are entomophagous insects Entomophagy
InsectsPhagein = Feeding
feed on one type of prey (i.e. a specialist)
Feeding strategy
Rodolia cardinalis feeds
on Icerya purchasi
Monophagous
Monophagous predator
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Two-spotted spider mite
Tetranychus urticae
Feeds on a limited range of prey
Chilocorus kuwanae
Euonymus scale
Coccinella septempunctata
Pea aphid
Oligophagous predator
Feeds on closelyrelated species of prey
Feeds on a broad range of prey
Chrysoperla carnea
Aphids
Thrips
Spider mite
Whiteflies
Leafminers
Polyphagous predator
Green lacewing
Mouthparts
Predators can have either:
1. Biting – chewing mouthparts
2. Piercing – Sucking mouthparts
Biting mouthparts
Mandibles cut & chew;
Maxillae manipulate the prey
Examples:
Cicendela sp.
(Carabidae)
Tiger beetle
Green lacewing (Antlion; Neuroptera)
Mouthparts
Elongated labium
Mandibles & maxillae = stylet for piercing
Piercing & sucking mouthparts
Examples:
Cicendela sp.
(Pentatomidae)
Anchor stink bug
Minute pirate bugOrius sp.
(Anthocoridae)
Zosteria sp.
(Asilidae)
Assassin fly
Stegodyphus lineatus
(Eresidae)
Velvet spider
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Coleoptera - Beetles
Cockchafer
Melolontha sp.
Family: Scarabaeidae
Order: Coleoptera
Beetles - Coleoptera Bugs - Hemiptera
Stink bug
Nezara marginata
Family: Pentatomidae
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Coleoptera - Beetles
Ground beetle
Pasimachs elongatus
Family: Carabidae
Order: Coleoptera
Beetles - Coleoptera Bugs - Hemiptera
Stink bug
Nezara marginata
Family: Pentatomidae
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Beetles life cycle
Pterostichus melanarius
Family: Carabidae
Exarate pupa
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera2-4 instarsLife cycle
(Free appendages)
Bird cherry-oat aphidcarrot weevil
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Carabidae
Ground beetles
Natural enemies in agroecosystems
Live and prey mostly on the ground
Gypsy moth larva
Colorado potato beetle larva
Clivinia fossor Pterostichus melanariu
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Carabidae
Ground beetles
Bimidion quadrimaculatum
Onion root maggot
Black onion fly
Black bean aphid European corn borer
Fall armyworm
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Ladybird beetles
~5,000 species in the family
Most species eat primarily insects and mites
Aphid colony
Rodolia cardinalis prey on
The cottony cushion scale,
Icerya purchasi California; 1,888
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Feeding behaviour
Adults & larva feed on the same prey
Highly specific diet
Some ladybirds are species-specific, others eat several species
Ladybirds are not effective at low population levels
Many species feed on pollen, nectar and honeydew
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Life cycle
Warning colours
Eggs laid in clusters
4 instars
sucker
Coccinellinae: Exposed pupaScymnini:
Completely covered pupa
Chilocorini:
Partly exposed
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Hippodamia convergens
Biological control
Coccinella septempunctata
Adalia bipunctataScymnus sp.Stethorus punctilum Harmonia axyridis
Green lacewing
Lacewings / AntlionsBrown lacewing
Order: Neuroptera
Families: Chrysopidae
HemerobiidaeLarva: predator
Adult: honeydew, nectar, pollenAll predators
Prey: Aphids, whiteflies, thrips, spider mites, moth eggs, spider mites, mealybugsAphids
Great golden digger wasp
Sphex sp.
Digger waspsClass: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Sphecidae25% of species in the order are predators
Ants control ground-dwelling insects
Wasps paralyze insects Biological control of
leaf-eating insects
Polistes humilis
Vespidae
Great golden digger wasp
Digger waspsClass: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Sphecidae25% of species in the order are predators
Ants control ground-dwelling insects
Wasps paralyze insects Biological control of
leaf-eating insects
Polistes humilis
Vespidae
reduced caterpillar
numbers in cabbages
Impractical in
agriculture
White cabbage butterfly
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Syrphidae
Hoverflies
Resemble bees, but only one pair of wings
Feed on aphids
Esiyrphus balteatus
Marmalade hoverfly
500 eggs
Released
in pepper
crops
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera (bugs)
Family: Lygaeidae
Big-eyed bugs
Geocoris sp. feeding
on whitefly nymph
Most bugs are vegetarian
Some important predators
Lepidopteran eggs
Plant bugs
Whiteflies
Mites
aphids
Prey:
Crops
(e.g.):
Cotton
Ornamentals
Strawberries
Vegetable crops
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera (bugs)
Suborder: Heteroptera (True bugs)
Family: Reduviidae
Pristhesancus plagipennis
Helicoverpa sp.
(Lepidoptera
Creoniades sp.
Miridae
Assassin bugs
Ambush predators
Thin neck ; Strong piercing rostrum
Highly polyphagous, including honeybees & spiders
Crop (e.g.): sunflower, cotton Good control in cotton
(Grundy 2007)
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Flower bugs
Polyphagous predators
Important in many agricultural crops
The common flower bug
Anthocoris nemorum
Minute pirate bug
Orius sp.Pear Psylla
Actively search for prey
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Flower bugs
Polyphagous predators
Important in many agricultural crops
The common flower bug
Anthocoris nemorumPear Psylla
Actively search for prey
Prey: greenfly
red spider mite
Crop: Hedgerows
Agri. crops
Wild plants
Pear orchards
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Minute pirate bug
3 main species used as BCA: Orius laevigatus
O. Majusculus
O. insidiosus
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Minute pirate bug
Prey: Thrips
Aphids
Whiteflies
Mites
Moth eggs
Omnivorous
Introduced the most
Orius laevigatus
Mediterranean Europe
Thrips
O. majusculus
Flowers Whole plant
Egg
5 nymphal stages
Adult
Orius life cycle
Hemimetabolus
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Anthocoridae
Egg: embedded in the leaf
Nymph: yellowish
wing buds at 5th instar
Adult: brown / black
occupy flower head
found on leaves
All instars feed on soft-bodied insectsO. insidiosus nymph
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
Zoophytophagus plant bugs
Lygus sp.
Pest in cotton, strawberry etc.
Most mirids are pests
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
Zoophytophagus plant bugs
Most mirids are pests
Nesidiocoris Tenuis
Tomato leafminer; Tuta absoluta
Efficient natural enemy of Tuta absoluta
Macrolophus caliginosus
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: MiridaeOmnivore
Wide range of prey
Effective in controlling
whiteflies
Used commercially
Tomato (tunnel & glasshouse)
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Pentatomidae
Stink/Shield bugs
Eject foul smell when disturbed
Most species are pests
Stiretrus anchorago
Polyphagous predator
e.g. mexican bean beetle
Low abundance
Anchor bug
Low contribution to
biological control
Spined soldier bug
Polyphagous predator
e.g. gypsy moth, corn borer, armyworm sp. etc.
Classical biological control (e.g. Russia)
Podisus maculiventris
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Arachnida
Subclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Predatory mites
The most introduced NE
Used commercially worldwide
1st used on cucumber by Koppert 1960’s
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Subclass: Acari
Order: Trombidiformes
Family: Tetranychidae
Spider mites
Pests in many crops around the world
Two-spotted spider mite is the most important
All stages feed on plant tissue and sap
Adults & nymphs produce webs
Difficult for predators to penetrateTetranychus urticae
Tetranychus urticae
Subclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Highly specific to spider mitesEgg
Larva
2 nymphstages
Adultdoesn’t eat
eat all stages,
but adults
Highly population growth than T. urticae
Disadvantage: No alternative prey Cannibalism Population decline
Neoseiulus californicus
Subclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: Phytoseiidae
Above 30⁰C, P. persimilis growth declines
Neoseiulus californicus
Prefer the larval & nymphal stages of T. urticae
Consume less prey than P. persimilis, but more
effective at low densities
Generalist predator
Panonychus ulmi
Used commercially in fruit
& ornamental crops
Aculops lycopersici
Tomato rust mite Fruit spider mite
Iphiseius degeneransSubclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: PhytoseiidaeNative to the mediterranean
Feeds on spider mites, thrips & pollen
Not effective against T. urticae because of the web
Used particularly in pepper crops
Can survive and reproduce only on pollen
Amblyseius swirskiiSubclass: Acari
Order: Mesostigmata
Family: PhytoseiidaeNative to the mediterranean
Suited for warm (25-28⁰C) and humid (60-70%) conditions
Generalist predator: 1-2 instar thrips
Eggs, 1st larvae whitefly
Can survive & reproduce on pollen
spider mites
Used commercially to control whiteflies
Establish well in the crop
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Arachnida
Order: Aranea
Family: Linyphiidae
Spiders
Most dominant predator in agro-ecosystems
Consume many prey
in short timeSurvive at low pest
population
Most BCA are specialists
Spiders are generalist predators
Spider BC = conservation of spiders (e.g. selective spraying)
3 main families in desert agro-ecosystems of wheat(Gavish et al. 2008)
Linyphiidae
Gnaphosiidae
Theridiidae
Gnaphosidae
Theriididae
Parasitoids
An organism that live in or on another animal (host), exploiting and killing it
Aphytis melinus, a parasitoid of the
California red scale
Encarsia formosa, parasitoid of
whitefly nymphs
Occupy a host during development
Adult is free-living
Parasites
An organism that live in or on a host, exploiting but not killing it
Blacklegged tick
Occupy a host at all life stages
A parasitoid that lives on the external surface of
its host, feeding on it and killing it in the process.
Diglyphus isaea
D. isaea pupae
Ectoparasitoid
Parasitoid of the vegetable leafminer
Endoparasitoid
A parasitoid that lives inside the body of its host,
feeding on it and killing it in the process.
Don’t cause immediate death of the host
Feed on the essential tissues only at the end of development
Protected inside the host
parasitoid of the citrus leafminer
Ageniaspis citricola
Idiobiont : prevent further development of the host after initial
parasitization
Types of parasitoids
attack an immobile life stage (e.g. an egg or pupa)
mostly ectoparasitoids
Koinobiont : the host continues to develop after prasitization and is
only killed when the parasitoid reaches maturity
attack any life stage
Both ecto- and endoparasitoids
Egg parasitoids
Life-stages attacked
Complete their development in the egg stage of the host
Brown stink bug
Halyomorpha halys
Trissolcus halymorphae
Egg-larval parasitoids
Attack the egg, but complete development at the larval stage
Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva
Life-stages attacked
Egg-pupa parasitoids
Attack the egg, but delay development and kill the host before pupation
Adult parasitoid emerge from the pupa
Chelonus sp.e.g. Chelonus annulipes attack the EU corn borer
EU corn borer
e.g. Fopius arisanus attack fruit fly eggs (e.g. ceratitis capitate)
Larva parasitoids
Life-stages attacked
Complete their development in the larval stage of the host
Pieris rapaeSmall cabbage white butterfly
(Baraconidae)Cotesia rubecula
Parasitize 1st instar
Larval-pupal parasitoids
Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva
Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva
Life-stages attacked
Larval-adult parasitoids
*rare in nature
e.g. Diachasmimorpha kraussi attack the fruit fly
Parasitoid larva completes development in host pupa
Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva
Parasitoid larva completes development and kills host adult
Picture by Yoav Gazit
Bactroceralatifrons
Pupal parasitoids
Life-stages attacked
Complete their development in the host pupa
Diamondback moth
Plutella xylostella
Diadromus collaris (Ichneumonidae)
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Hymenoptera
IchneumonidaeChalcidoidae
Aphelinidae
Mymaridae
Encytidae
Trichogrammatidae
Eulophidae
Braconidae
Diptera Leopidoptera
Tachinidae Epipyroptera
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Hymenoptera
IchneumonidaeChalcidoidae
Aphelinidae
Mymaridae
Encytidae
Trichogrammatidae
Eulophidae
Braconidae
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Super-Family: Chalcidoidea
Egg parasitoids
whiteflies
aphids
More than 30 species
Important for biological control
Parasitoids as natural enemies
Hymenoptera
IchneumonidaeChalcidoidae
Aphelinidae
Mymaridae
Encytidae
Trichogrammatidae
Eulophidae
Braconidae
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Super-Family: Chalcidoidea
Egg parasitoids
mealybugs
whiteflies
aphids
Armoured scale insect
Encarsia formosaOrder: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidae
Trialeurodes vaporariorum Tobacco whiteflyGreenhouse whitefly
Bemisia tabaci
Used in BC of whitefly since 1972
Preferred species
Skilled in finding whitefly patches
Faster development than that of
whiteflies (27 vs. 32 days)Encarsia formosa
Encarsia formosaSuper-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidaeo Females prefer to oviposit
in 3rd – 4th instar nymphs
o Larva develops in the 4th
instar of the host
o Dark parasitized pupa
o Adult emerge from the pupa
Larval-pupa parasitoid
o Adult feed on honeydew
& larvae, i.e. host feeding
Eretmocerus eremicus Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidae
Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Tobacco whitefly
Greenhouse whitefly
Bemisia tabaci
Used in BC of whitefly since 1994
Ectoparasitoid
Female may lay eggs under already
parasitized larvae (super-parasitism)
More efficient than E. formosa
E. eremicus
Eretmocerus Mundus
E. mundus
Native to the mediterranean
Used in BC of whitefly since 2002
Exclusively parasitize B. tabaci
Macrosiphus sp.
Potato aphid
Aphelinus abdominalis Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Aphelinidae
Aphid mummies
Endoparasitoid of various sp.
The egg is injected to
the underside of the aphid
Wasp larvae develops inside
the aphid and kills it when it pupates
Host feeding on small nymphs
Used in BC since 1993
Leptomastix dactylopiiOrder: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: EncyrtidaeSpecialist parasitoid
Endoparasitoid
Female oviposit in 3rd instar
Larva consume the mealybug
Pupate inside the dead mealybug
Efficient searching behaviour
Control pest at low densitiesCitrus mealybug Planococcus citri
Trichogramma brassicae Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: TrichogrammatidaeEgg parasitoid of moths
2-3 eggs are laid
in each moth egg
Wasp larva pupate
inside the moth egg
Used against the corn borer
Anagrus atomus Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: MymaridaeFamily of egg parasitoids
Parasitize leafhopper eggs
Enters the glasshouse naturally
Not sufficient for effective control
Empoasca vitis
Diglyphus isaeaOrder: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Chalcidoidea
Family: Eulophidae
Tomato leafminer Liriomyza bryoniae
Ectoparasitoid
Parasitize many sp. of leafminers
Egg laid near paralayzed
leafminer larva
Larva pupates in the dead mine
Host feeding
Released to control leafminers
in glasshouses, used since 1984
Aphid parasitoidsOrder: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
Family: Braconidae
A. matricariae
3 important Aphidius species
A. erviA. colemani
Aphis spp.
Myzus spp.
Aulacorthum solani
Myzus persicaeMacrosiphum euphobiae
Commercially used for biological control
Efficient at low densities
Aphelinus abdominalis
Macrosiphum spp.
Aulacorthum spp.
Myzus spp.
Commercially used for
biological control
Host feeding
Occur naturally
Macrosiphum spp.
Glasshouse potato aphid
A. solani M. euphobiae
Potatoaphid
Cotton aphidAphis gossypii
Egg
larva
Aphid mummymummy
with pupa
Waspemerge
Aphedius colemani Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
Family: Braconidaeo Rapid population growth
o Female lay >300 eggs
o Parasitize nymphs & adult
o Cocoon inside the aphid cuticle
Wasp presence
Secretion of warning substance
Drop to the ground
Some aphids dieAdds to Biological control
Hyper-parasitoidsOrder: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Ceraphronoidea
Family: Megaspilidaeo Parasitoids on aphid parasitoids
o Serious threat to aphid control
Dendrocerus carpenteri
Ectoparasitoid of 4th instar larva or pupa
D. Carpentri larva eats Aphidius larvae
from the outside & pupates
Hyper-parasitoid emerge
from the mummyAlloxysta spp.
lay the egg inside the
Aphidius larva
D. carpenteri
lay the egg next
to Aphidius larva Aphidius larva
Opius pallipes & Dacnusa sibirica Order: Hymenoptera
Super-family: Ichneumonoidea
Family: BraconidaeEndoparasitoids of leaf-miners
Fast population growth than leaf-miners
Egg-pupa parasitoids (prefer 1st, 2nd instar)
Larva reach full development after leaf-miner pupation
Super-parasitism occur,
D. sibirica
O. pallipes
only 1 wasp will emerge
D. sibirica used commercially
OpiinaeFamily: Braconidae
Subfamily: Opiinaeo Endoparasitoids of fruit-flies (Tephritidae)
Bactrocera tryoni
Ceratitis capitata
Introduced & established in IL
Not sold commercially
o Fruit fly egg is laid inside the fruit,
the larva develop within,
pupate on the ground
o Wasps lay egg inside the egg or larva
o Wasp larva develop in the larva & pupa
o Adult wasp emerge
from the fly’s pupa Diachasmimorpha kraussii
Fopius arisanus
Parasitoid flies Order: Diptera
Family: Tachinidae Large family of parasitoid flies
Attack larvae of Lepidoptera & Coleoptera
Egg deposited next to the host
Maggot ingested with the
leaf by caterpillar
Maggot develops inside
Pupate inside the host, killing the caterpillar
Adult fly emerge
Voria ruralis
maggot
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
Order: Rhabditidae
Entomopathogenic nematodes
Nematodes are simple round-worms
Colourless, un-segmented, lacking appendages
Free-living, predaceous or parasitic
Lethal to many insect pests, but safely applied
Microbial
pathogens
Entomopathogenic
nematodes
Predators
Parasitoids
Kill pest within 24-48 hours
Photo: Y. Wang
Nematode life cycle
2 genera used in BC: Steinernema
Heterorhabditis
Juvenile search for host
Penetrate through body cavity
Release symbiotic bacteria
Feed on bacteria & liquefied host
Develop & reproduce in the host
Infective juveniles emerge
Nematode-Bacterium complex
Donald Danforth Plant Science Center
Bacterial Chamber
Infective Juveniles
Curtesy of Roy Kaspi
Symbiotic relationship with bacteria
Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora
Biological control
Marketed world wide, against a broad range of pests
Steinernema carpocapsae
Sit-&-wait forager, called Ambusher
Effective against lepidopteran & coleoptera larva
Effective against highly mobile surface insects
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
Active forager, called Cruiser
Effective against sedentary insects
White grub (larva of June beetle) Photo: Ganpati Jagdale
Conclusion
Many groups are involved in biological control
Efficient BCA are both generalists and specialists
Effective biological control is cheap, safe
and may hold for many years
Success depends on understanding the
pest-natural enemy interactions
Acknowledgments
Dr. Roy Kaspi
Prof. Moshe Coll
Malais, M.H. & Ravensberg, W.J. Knowing and recognizing, the biology
of glasshouse pests and their natural enemies. Koppert Biological Systems
Most material taken from:
Photo: Y. Gazit
Yaniv, Assaf & Ayala
for babysitting