1.Optical Fiber Communications Communications Principles and PracticeOptical Fiber Third Edition JOHN M. SENIOR This highly successful book, now in its third edition, has been extensively updated to include both new developments and improvements to technology and their utilization within the optical fiber global communications network. The third edition, which contains an additional chapter and many new sections, is now structured into 15 chapters to facilitate a logical progression of the material, to enable both straightforward access to topics and provide an appropriate background and theoretical support. Key features An entirely new chapter on optical networks, incorporating wavelength routing and optical switching networks A restructured chapter providing new material on optical amplifier technology, wavelength conversion and regeneration, and another focusing entirely on integrated optics and photonics Many areas have been updated, including: low water peak and high performance single-mode fibers, photonic crystal fibers, coherent and particularly phase-modulated systems, and optical networking techniquesOptical Fiber Inclusion of relevant up-to-date standardization developments Third Mathematical fundamentals where appropriate Increased number of worked examples, problems and new references Edition This new edition remains an extremely comprehensive introductory text with a practicalCommunications orientation for undergraduate and postgraduate engineers and scientists. It provides excellent JOHN M. SENIOR coverage of all aspects of the technology and encompasses the new developments in the field. Hence it continues to be of substantial benefit and assistance for practising engineers, technologists and scientists who need access to a wide-ranging and up-to-date reference to this continually expanding field. Professor John Senior is Pro Vice-Chancellor for Research and Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences at the University of Hertfordshire, UK. This third editionPrinciples and Practice of the book draws on his extensive experience of both teaching and research in this area.Third EditionCover image INMAGINE www.pearson-books.comJOHN M. SENIORCVR_SENI6812_03_SE_CVR.indd 1 5/11/08 15:40:38

2. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page iOptical FiberCommunications 3. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page iiWe work with leading authors to develop thestrongest educational materials in engineering,bringing cutting-edge thinking and bestlearning practice to a global market.Under a range of well-known imprints, includingPrentice Hall, we craft high quality print andelectronic publications which help readers tounderstand and apply their content,whether studying or at work.To nd out more about the complete range of ourpublishing, please visit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.uk 4. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page iii Optical Fiber Communications Principles and Practice Third edition John M. Senior assisted by M. Yousif Jamro 5. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page ivPearson Education LimitedEdinburgh GateHarlowEssex CM20 2JEEnglandand Associated Companies throughout the worldVisit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.ukFirst published 1985Second edition 1992Third edition published 2009 Prentice Hall Europe 1985, 1992 Pearson Education Limited 2009The right of John M. Senior to be identied as author of this work hasbeen asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or alicence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the CopyrightLicensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 610 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of anytrademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownershiprights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any afliation withor endorsement of this book by such owners.ISBN: 978-0-13-032681-2British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSenior, John M., 1951 Optical ber communications : principles and practice / John M. Senior, assisted byM. Yousif Jamro. 3rd ed.p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-032681-2 (alk. paper) 1. Optical communications. 2. Fiber optics.I. Jamro, M. Yousif. II. Title.TK5103.59.S46 2008621.38275dc22 200801813310 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 112 11 10 09 08Typeset in 10/12 Times by 35Printed and bound by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, GosportThe publishers policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests. 6. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page vTo Judy and my mother Joan, and in memory of my father Ken 7. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page vi 8. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page viiContentsPrefacexixAcknowledgements xxiiiList of symbols and abbreviationsxxxiiChapter 1: Introduction 11.1 Historical development11.2 The general system51.3 Advantages of optical fiber communication 7References 10Chapter 2: Optical fiber waveguides 122.1 Introduction 122.2 Ray theory transmission142.2.1 Total internal reflection142.2.2 Acceptance angle 162.2.3 Numerical aperture 172.2.4 Skew rays202.3 Electromagnetic mode theory for optical propagation242.3.1 Electromagnetic waves242.3.2 Modes in a planar guide262.3.3 Phase and group velocity 282.3.4 Phase shift with total internal reflection and theevanescent field 302.3.5 GoosHaenchen shift352.4 Cylindrical fiber352.4.1 Modes352.4.2 Mode coupling422.4.3 Step index fibers432.4.4 Graded index fibers462.5 Single-mode fibers 542.5.1 Cutoff wavelength592.5.2 Mode-field diameter and spot size602.5.3 Effective refractive index 61 9. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page viiiviii Contents2.5.4 Group delay and mode delay factor642.5.5 The Gaussian approximation 652.5.6 Equivalent step index methods712.6 Photonic crystal fibers752.6.1 Index-guided microstructures 752.6.2 Photonic bandgap fibers77Problems 78References 82Chapter 3: Transmission characteristics ofoptical fibers 863.1Introduction 873.2Attenuation883.3Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers90 3.3.1 Intrinsic absorption 90 3.3.2 Extrinsic absorption 913.4 Linear scattering losses95 3.4.1 Rayleigh scattering95 3.4.2 Mie scattering 973.5 Nonlinear scattering losses 98 3.5.1 Stimulated Brillouin scattering98 3.5.2 Stimulated Raman scattering993.6 Fiber bend loss1003.7 Mid-infrared and far-infrared transmission 1023.8 Dispersion 1053.9 Chromatic dispersion 109 3.9.1 Material dispersion 110 3.9.2 Waveguide dispersion1133.10 Intermodal dispersion 113 3.10.1 Multimode step index fiber 114 3.10.2 Multimode graded index fiber 119 3.10.3 Modal noise1223.11 Overall fiber dispersion124 3.11.1 Multimode fibers 124 3.11.2 Single-mode fibers 1253.12 Dispersion-modified single-mode fibers132 3.12.1 Dispersion-shifted fibers133 3.12.2 Dispersion-flattened fibers137 3.12.3 Nonzero-dispersion-shifted fibers137 10. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page ixContents ix3.13 Polarization140 3.13.1 Fiber birefringence141 3.13.2 Polarization mode dispersion 144 3.13.3 Polarization-maintaining fibers1473.14 Nonlinear effects 151 3.14.1 Scattering effects 151 3.14.2 Kerr effects 1543.15 Soliton propagation 155 Problems158 References163Chapter 4: Optical fibers and cables1694.1 Introduction 1694.2 Preparation of optical fibers1704.3 Liquid-phase (melting) techniques1714.3.1 Fiber drawing1724.4 Vapor-phase deposition techniques1754.4.1 Outside vapor-phase oxidation process1764.4.2 Vapor axial deposition (VAD) 1784.4.3 Modified chemical vapor deposition 1804.4.4 Plasma-activated chemical vapor deposition(PCVD) 1814.4.5 Summary of vapor-phase depositiontechniques 1824.5 Optical fibers 1834.5.1 Multimode step index fibers1844.5.2 Multimode graded index fibers1854.5.3 Single-mode fibers 1874.5.4 Plastic-clad fibers1904.5.5 Plastic optical fibers 1914.6 Optical fiber cables 1944.6.1 Fiber strength and durability1954.7 Stability of the fiber transmission characteristics1994.7.1 Microbending 1994.7.2 Hydrogen absorption2004.7.3 Nuclear radiation exposure 2014.8 Cable design 2034.8.1 Fiber buffering2034.8.2 Cable structural and strength members204 11. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xx Contents4.8.3 Cable sheath, water barrier and cable core 2064.8.4 Examples of fiber cables 207Problems 212References 213Chapter 5: Optical fiber connections: joints,couplers and isolators 2175.1 Introduction 2175.2 Fiber alignment and joint loss 2195.2.1 Multimode fiber joints 2225.2.2 Single-mode fiber joints 2305.3 Fiber splices2335.3.1 Fusion splices 2345.3.2 Mechanical splices 2365.3.3 Multiple splices 2415.4 Fiber connectors 2435.4.1 Cylindrical ferrule connectors 2445.4.2 Duplex and multiple-fiber connectors 2475.4.3 Fiber connector-type summary 2495.5 Expanded beam connectors 2515.5.1 GRIN-rod lenses2545.6 Fiber couplers 2565.6.1 Three- and four-port couplers2595.6.2 Star couplers2645.6.3 Wavelength division multiplexingcouplers 2695.7 Optical isolators and circulators280Problems 283References 287Chapter 6: Optical sources 1: the laser2946.1 Introduction 2946.2 Basic concepts 2976.2.1 Absorption and emission of radiation 2976.2.2 The Einstein relations 2996.2.3 Population inversion 3026.2.4 Optical feedback and laser oscillation 3036.2.5 Threshold condition for laser oscillation307 12. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xiContents xi6.3Optical emission from semiconductors309 6.3.1 The pn junction309 6.3.2 Spontaneous emission311 6.3.3 Carrier recombination 313 6.3.4 Stimulated emission and lasing317 6.3.5 Heterojunctions 323 6.3.6 Semiconductor materials 3256.4 The semiconductor injection laser327 6.4.1 Efficiency328 6.4.2 Stripe geometry 330 6.4.3 Laser modes 332 6.4.4 Single-mode operation 3336.5 Some injection laser structures334 6.5.1 Gain-guided lasers334 6.5.2 Index-guided lasers 336 6.5.3 Quantum-well lasers 339 6.5.4 Quantum-dot lasers3396.6 Single-frequency injection lasers342 6.6.1 Short- and couple-cavity lasers 342 6.6.2 Distributed feedback lasers 344 6.6.3 Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers 3476.7 Injection laser characteristics350 6.7.1 Threshold current temperature dependence350 6.7.2 Dynamic response354 6.7.3 Frequency chirp 355 6.7.4 Noise 356 6.7.5 Mode hopping360 6.7.6 Reliability 3616.8 Injection laser to fiber coupling3626.9 Nonsemiconductor lasers364 6.9.1 The Nd:YAG laser364 6.9.2 Glass fiber lasers3666.10 Narrow-linewidth and wavelength-tunable lasers369 6.10.1 Long external cavity lasers371 6.10.2 Integrated external cavity lasers372 6.10.3 Fiber lasers 3766.11 Mid-infrared and far-infrared lasers378 6.11.1 Quantum cascade lasers 381 Problems383 References386 13. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xiixii ContentsChapter 7: Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diode 3967.1 Introduction 3967.2 LED power and efficiency 3987.2.1 The double-heterojunction LED4057.3 LED structures 4067.3.1 Planar LED 4077.3.2 Dome LED 4077.3.3 Surface emitter LEDs 4077.3.4 Edge emitter LEDs4117.3.5 Superluminescent LEDs4147.3.6 Resonant cavity and quantum-dot LEDs 4167.3.7 Lens coupling to fiber 4197.4 LED characteristics4227.4.1 Optical output power 4227.4.2 Output spectrum4257.4.3 Modulation bandwidth 4287.4.4 Reliability4337.5 Modulation 435Problems 436References 439Chapter 8: Optical detectors 4448.1 Introduction 4448.2 Device types 4468.3 Optical detection principles 4478.4 Absorption 4488.4.1 Absorption coefficient 4488.4.2 Direct and indirect absorption: silicon andgermanium4498.4.3 IIIV alloys 4508.5 Quantum efficiency 4518.6 Responsivity 4518.7 Long-wavelength cutoff 4558.8 Semiconductor photodiodes without internal gain4568.8.1 The pn photodiode 4568.8.2 The pin photodiode 4578.8.3 Speed of response and traveling-wave photodiodes 4628.8.4 Noise468 14. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xiiiContents xiii 8.9Semiconductor photodiodes with internal gain 4708.9.1 Avalanche photodiodes4708.9.2 Silicon reach through avalanche photodiodes4728.9.3 Germanium avalanche photodiodes4738.9.4 IIIV alloy avalanche photodiodes4748.9.5 Benefits and drawbacks with the avalanche photodiode 4808.9.6 Multiplication factor482 8.10 Mid-infrared and far-infrared photodiodes4828.10.1 Quantum-dot photodetectors484 8.11 Phototransistors 485 8.12 Metalsemiconductormetal photodetectors 489Problems 493References 496 Chapter 9: Direct detection receiver performance considerations502 9.1 Introduction502 9.2 Noise 503 9.2.1 Thermal noise 503 9.2.2 Dark current noise504 9.2.3 Quantum noise 504 9.2.4 Digital signaling quantum noise 505 9.2.5 Analog transmission quantum noise 508 9.3 Receiver noise510 9.3.1 The pn and pin photodiode receiver 511 9.3.2 Receiver capacitance and bandwidth515 9.3.3 Avalanche photodiode (APD) receiver 516 9.3.4 Excess avalanche noise factor 522 9.3.5 Gainbandwidth product523 9.4 Receiver structures 524 9.4.1 Low-impedance front-end 525 9.4.2 High-impedance (integrating) front-end526 9.4.3 The transimpedance front-end526 9.5 FET preamplifiers 530 9.5.1 Gallium arsenide MESFETs531 9.5.2 PINFET hybrid receivers532 9.6 High-performance receivers534 Problems542 References545 15. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xivxiv ContentsChapter 10: Optical amplification, wavelengthconversion and regeneration54910.1 Introduction54910.2 Optical amplifiers55010.3 Semiconductor optical amplifiers552 10.3.1 Theory 554 10.3.2 Performance characteristics559 10.3.3 Gain clamping563 10.3.4 Quantum dots 56510.4 Fiber and waveguide amplifiers567 10.4.1 Rare-earth-doped fiber amplifiers568 10.4.2 Raman and Brillouin fiber amplifiers 571 10.4.3 Waveguide amplifiers and fiber amplets 575 10.4.4 Optical parametric amplifiers578 10.4.5 Wideband fiber amplifiers58110.5 Wavelength conversion 583 10.5.1 Cross-gain modulation wavelength converter 584 10.5.2 Cross-phase modulation wavelength converter586 10.5.3 Cross-absorption modulation wavelength converters592 10.5.4 Coherent wavelength converters 59310.6 Optical regeneration595 Problems598 References600Chapter 11: Integrated optics and photonics60611.1 Introduction60611.2 Integrated optics and photonics technologies60711.3 Planar waveguides 61011.4 Some integrated optical devices 615 11.4.1 Beam splitters, directional couplers and switches616 11.4.2 Modulators 623 11.4.3 Periodic structures for filters and injection lasers 627 11.4.4 Polarization transformers and wavelength converters63411.5 Optoelectronic integration63611.6 Photonic integrated circuits64311.7 Optical bistability and digital optics64811.8 Optical computation 656 Problems663 References665 16. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xvContents xvChapter 12: Optical fiber systems 1: intensitymodulation/direct detection67312.1 Introduction67312.2 The optical transmitter circuit 675 12.2.1 Source limitations 676 12.2.2 LED drive circuits 679 12.2.3 Laser drive circuits 68612.3 The optical receiver circuit690 12.3.1 The preamplifier 691 12.3.2 Automatic gain control 694 12.3.3 Equalization 69712.4 System design considerations700 12.4.1 Component choice 701 12.4.2 Multiplexing 70212.5 Digital systems 70312.6 Digital system planning considerations708 12.6.1 The optoelectronic regenerative repeater 708 12.6.2 The optical transmitter and modulation formats 711 12.6.3 The optical receiver 715 12.6.4 Channel losses 725 12.6.5 Temporal response726 12.6.6 Optical power budgeting731 12.6.7 Line coding and forward error correction 73412.7 Analog systems739 12.7.1 Direct intensity modulation (DIM) 742 12.7.2 System planning748 12.7.3 Subcarrier intensity modulation750 12.7.4 Subcarrier double-sideband modulation (DSBIM) 752 12.7.5 Subcarrier frequency modulation (FMIM)754 12.7.6 Subcarrier phase modulation (PMIM)756 12.7.7 Pulse analog techniques75812.8 Distribution systems76012.9 Multiplexing strategies 765 12.9.1 Optical time division multiplexing 765 12.9.2 Subcarrier multiplexing766 12.9.3 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing 768 12.9.4 Wavelength division multiplexing 771 12.9.5 Optical code division multiplexing 777 12.9.6 Hybrid multiplexing778 17. OPTF_A01.qxd 8/18/09 11:36 AM Page xvi xvi Contents 12.10 Application of optical amplifiers 778 12.11 Dispersion management 786 12.12 Soliton systems 792 Problems802 References811 Chapter 13: Optical fiber systems 2: coherent and phase modulated 823 13.1 Introduction 823 13.2 Basic coherent system827 13.3 Coherent detection principles830 13.4 Practical constraints of coherent transmission 83513.4.1 Injection laser linewidth 83513.4.2 State of polarization 83613.4.3 Local oscillator power84013.4.4 Transmission medium limitations 843 13.5 Modulation formats 84513.5.1 Amplitude shift keying84513.5.2 Frequency shift keying84613.5.3 Phase shift keying84713.5.4 Polarization shift keying 850 13.6 Demodulation schemes 85113.6.1 Heterodyne synchronous detection85313.6.2 Heterodyne asynchronous detection 85513.6.3 Homodyne detection85613.6.4 Intradyne detection 85913.6.5 Phase diversity reception 86013.6.6 Polarization diversity reception and polarizationscrambling 863 13.7 Differential phase shift keying864 13.8 Receiver sensitivities 86813.8.1 ASK heterodyne detection86813.8.2 FSK heterodyne detection87113.8.3 PSK heterodyne detection87313.8.4 ASK and PSK homodyne detection87413.8.5 Dual-filter direct detection FSK87513.8.6 Interferometric direct detection DPSK 87613.8.7 Comparison of sensitivities 877 18. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xviiContents xvii13.9 Multicarrier systems886 13.9.1 Polarization multiplexing889 13.9.2 High-capacity transmission 890 Problems894 References897 Chapter 14: Optical fiber measurements 90514.1 Introduction90514.2 Fiber attenuation measurements90914.2.1 Total fiber attenuation 91014.2.2 Fiber absorption loss measurement 91414.2.3 Fiber scattering loss measurement 91714.3 Fiber dispersion measurements 91914.3.1 Time domain measurement 92014.3.2 Frequency domain measurement92314.4 Fiber refractive index profile measurements 92614.4.1 Interferometric methods 92714.4.2 Near-field scanning method93014.4.3 Refracted near-field method 93214.5 Fiber cutoff wavelength measurements93414.6 Fiber numerical aperture measurements 93814.7 Fiber diameter measurements 94114.7.1 Outer diameter94114.7.2 Core diameter 94314.8 Mode-field diameter for single-mode fiber 94314.9 Reflectance and optical return loss 94614.10 Field measurements 94814.10.1 Optical time domain reflectometry952Problems 958References 962 Chapter 15: Optical networks 96715.1 Introduction96715.2 Optical network concepts969 15.2.1 Optical networking terminology 970 15.2.2 Optical network node and switching elements974 15.2.3 Wavelength division multiplexed networks 976 15.2.4 Public telecommunications network overview 978 19. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xviiixviii Contents15.3 Optical network transmission modes, layers and protocols979 15.3.1 Synchronous networks 980 15.3.2 Asynchronous transfer mode 985 15.3.3 Open Systems Interconnection reference model 985 15.3.4 Optical transport network987 15.3.5 Internet Protocol98915.4 Wavelength routing networks 992 15.4.1 Wavelength routing and assignment99615.5 Optical switching networks998 15.5.1 Optical circuit-switched networks998 15.5.2 Optical packet-switched networks1000 15.5.3 Multiprotocol Label Switching 1002 15.5.4 Optical burst switching networks100415.6 Optical network deployment 1007 15.6.1 Long-haul networks1008 15.6.2 Metropolitan area networks1011 15.6.3 Access networks 1013 15.6.4 Local area networks 102315.7 Optical Ethernet 102815.8 Network protection, restoration and survivability1034 Problems 1038 References 1041Appendix AThe field relations in a planar guide 1051Appendix BGaussian pulse response 1052Appendix CVariance of a random variable 1053Appendix DVariance of the sum of independent random variables 1055Appendix EClosed loop transfer function for the transimpedanceamplifier 1056Index 1057Supporting resourcesVisit www.pearsoned.co.uk/senior-optical to find valuable online resourcesFor instructors An Instructors Manual that provides full solutions to all the numericalproblems, which are provided at the end of each chapter in the book.For more information please contact your local Pearson Education salesrepresentative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/senior-optical 20. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xixPrefaceThe preface to the second edition drew attention to the relentless onslaught in the develop-ment of optical ber communications technology identied in the rst edition in thecontext of the 1980s. Indeed, although optical ber communications could now, nearlytwo decades after that period nished, be dened as mature, this statement fails to signalthe continuing rapid and extensive developments that have subsequently taken place.Furthermore the pace of innovation and deployment fuelled, in particular, by the Internetis set to continue with developments in the next decade likely to match or even exceedthose which have occurred in the last decade. Hence this third edition seeks to record andexplain the improvements in both the technology and its utilization within what is largelyan optical ber global communications network.Major advances which have occurred while the second edition has been in print include:those associated with low-water-peak and high-performance single-mode bers; thedevelopment of photonic crystal bers; a new generation of multimode graded index plasticoptical bers; quantum-dot fabrication for optical sources and detectors; improvements inoptical amplier technology and, in particular, all-optical regeneration; the realization ofphotonic integrated circuits to provide ultrafast optical signal processing together withsilicon photonics; developments in digital signal processing to mitigate ber transmissionimpairments and the application of forward error correction strategies. In addition, therehave been substantial enhancements in transmission and multiplexing techniques such asthe use of duobinary-encoded transmission, orthogonal frequency division multiplexingand coarse/dense wavelength division multiplexing, while, more recently, there has been aresurgence of activity concerned with coherent and, especially, phase-modulated transmis-sion. Finally, optical networking techniques and optical networks have become establishedemploying both specic reference models for the optical transport network together withdevelopments originating from local area networks based on Ethernet to provide for thefuture optical Internet (i.e. 100 Gigabit Ethernet for carrier-class transport networks).Moreover, driven by similar broadband considerations, activity has signicantly increasedin relation to optical ber solutions for the telecommunication access network.Although a long period has elapsed since the publication of the second edition in 1992,it has continued to be used extensively in both academia and industry. Furthermore, asdelays associated with my ability to devote the necessary time to writing the updates forthis edition became apparent, it has been most gratifying that interest from the extensiveuser community of the second edition has encouraged me to nd ways to pursue the neces-sary revision and enhancement of the book. A major strategy to enable this process has beenthe support provided by my former student and now colleague, Dr M. Yousif Jamro, workingwith me, undertaking primary literature searches and producing update drafts for manychapters which formed the rst stage of the development for the new edition. An extensiveseries of iterations, modications and further additions then ensued to craft the nal text. 21. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxx Preface to the third edition In common with the other editions, this edition relies upon source material from thenumerous research and other publications in the eld including, most recently, theProceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Optical Communications (ECOC07)which took place in Berlin, Germany, in September 2007. Furthermore, it also draws uponthe research activities of the research group focused on optical systems and networks thatI established at the University of Hertfordshire when I took up the post as Dean of Facultyin 1998, having moved from Manchester Metropolitan University. Although the bookremains a comprehensive introductory text for use by both undergraduate and post-graduate engineers and scientists to provide them with a rm grounding in all signicantaspects of the technology, it now also encompasses a substantial chapter devoted to opticalnetworks and networking concepts as this area, in totality, constitutes the most importantand extensive range of developments in the eld to have taken place since the publicationof the second edition. In keeping with a substantial revision and updating of the content, then, the practicalnature of the coverage combined with the inclusion of the relevant up-to-date standardiza-tion developments has been retained to ensure that this third edition can continue to bewidely employed as a reference text for practicing engineers and scientists. Followingvery positive feedback from reviewers in relation to its primary intended use as a teaching/learning text, the number of worked examples interspersed throughout the book has beenincreased to over 120, while a total of 372 problems are now provided at the end of relev-ant chapters to enable testing of the readers understanding and to assist tutorial work.Furthermore, in a number of cases they are designed to extend the learning experiencefacilitated by the book. Answers to the numerical problems are provided at the end of therelevant sections in the book and the full solutions can be accessed on the publishers web-site using an appropriate password. Although the third edition has grown into a larger book, its status as an introductorytext ensures that the fundamentals are included where necessary, while there has been noattempt to cover the entire eld in full mathematical rigor. Selected proofs are developed,however, in important areas throughout the text. It is assumed that the reader is conversantwith differential and integral calculus and differential equations. In addition, the readerwill nd it useful to have a grounding in optics as well as a reasonable familiarity with thefundamentals of solid-state physics. This third edition is structured into 15 chapters to facilitate a logical progression ofmaterial and to enable straightforward access to topics by providing the appropriate back-ground and theoretical support. Chapter 1 gives a short introduction to optical ber com-munications by considering the historical development, the general system and the majoradvantages provided by this technology. In Chapter 2 the concept of the optical ber as atransmission medium is introduced using the simple ray theory approach. This is followedby discussion of electromagnetic wave theory applied to optical bers prior to considera-tion of lightwave transmission within the various ber types. In particular, single-modeber, together with a more recent class of microstructured optical ber, referred to asphotonic crystal ber, are covered in further detail. The major transmission characteristicsof optical bers are then dealt with in Chapter 3. Again there is a specic focus on theproperties and characteristics of single-mode bers including, in this third edition, enhanceddiscussion of single-mode ber types, polarization mode dispersion, nonlinear effects and,in particular, soliton propagation. 22. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxiPreface to the third edition xxi Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the more practical aspects of optical ber communicationsand therefore could be omitted from an initial teaching program. A number of these areas,however, are of crucial importance and thus should not be lightly overlooked. Chapter 4deals with the manufacturing and cabling of the various ber types, while in Chapter 5 thedifferent techniques to provide optical ber connection are described. In this latter chapterboth ber-to-ber joints (i.e. connectors and splices) are discussed as well as ber branch-ing devices, or couplers, which provide versatility within the conguration of optical bersystems and networks. Furthermore, a new section incorporating coverage of optical isola-tors and circulators which are utilized for the manipulation of signals within optical net-works has been included. Chapters 6 and 7 describe the light sources employed in optical ber communications.In Chapter 6 the fundamental physical principles of photoemission and laser action arediscussed prior to consideration of the various types of semiconductor and nonsemi-conductor laser currently in use, or under investigation, for optical ber communications.The other important semiconductor optical source, namely the light-emitting diode, isdealt with in Chapter 7. The next two chapters are devoted to the detection of the optical signal and the ampli-cation of the electrical signal obtained. Chapter 8 discusses the basic principles of opticaldetection in semiconductors; this is followed by a description of the various types ofphotodetector currently employed. The optical ber direct detection receiver is then con-sidered in Chapter 9, with particular emphasis on its performance characteristics. Enhanced coverage of optical ampliers and amplication is provided in Chapter 10,which also incorporates major new sections concerned with wavelength conversion pro-cesses and optical regeneration. Both of these areas are of key importance for current andfuture global optical networks. Chapter 11 then focuses on the fundamentals and ongoingdevelopments in integrated optics and photonics providing descriptions of device techno-logy, optoelectronic integration and photonic integrated circuits. In addition, the chapterincludes a discussion of optical bistability and digital optics which leads into an overviewof optical computation. Chapter 12 draws together the preceding material in a detailed discussion of the majorcurrent implementations of optical ber communication systems (i.e. those using intensitymodulation and the direct detection process) in order to give an insight into the designcriteria and practices for all the main aspects of both digital and analog ber systems. Twonew sections have been incorporated into this third edition dealing with the crucial topicof dispersion management and describing the research activities into the performanceattributes and realization of optical soliton systems. Over the initial period since the publication of the second edition, research interest andactivities concerned with coherent optical ber communications ceased as a result of theimproved performance which could be achieved using optical amplication with conven-tional intensity modulationdirect detection optical ber systems. Hence no signicantprogress in this area was made for around a decade until a renewed focus on coherentoptical systems was initiated in 2002 following experimental demonstrations using phase-modulated transmission. Coherent and phase-modulated optical systems are thereforedealt with in some detail in Chapter 13 which covers both the fundamentals and the initialperiod of research and development associated with coherent transmission prior to 1992,together with the important recent experimental system and eld trial demonstrations 23. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxiixxii Preface to the third editionprimarily focused on phase-modulated transmission that have taken place since 2002. Inparticular a major new section describing differential phase shift keying systems togetherwith new sections on polarization multiplexing and high-capacity transmission have beenincorporated into this third edition. Chapter 14 provides a general treatment of the major measurements which may beundertaken on optical bers in both the laboratory and the eld. The chapter is incorpor-ated at this stage in the book to enable the reader to obtain a more complete understandingof optical ber subsystems and systems prior to consideration of these issues. It continues toinclude the measurements required to be taken on single-mode bers and it addresses themeasurement techniques which have been adopted as national and international standards. Finally, Chapter 15 on optical networks comprises an almost entirely new chapter forthe third edition which provides both a detailed overview of this expanding eld and a dis-cussion of all the major aspects and technological solutions currently being explored. Inparticular, important implementations of wavelength routing and optical switching net-works are described prior to consideration of the various optical network deployments thathave occurred or are under active investigation. The chapter nishes with a section whichaddresses optical network protection and survivability. The book is also referenced throughout to extensive end-of-chapter references whichprovide a guide for further reading and also indicate a source for those equations that havebeen quoted without derivation. A complete list of symbols, together with a list of com-mon abbreviations in the text, is also provided. SI units are used throughout the book. I must extend my gratitude for the many useful comments and suggestions provided bythe diligent reviewers that have both encouraged and stimulated improvements to the text.Many thanks are also given to the authors of the multitude of journal and conferencepapers, articles and books that have been consulted and referenced in the preparation ofthis third edition and especially to those authors, publishers and companies who havekindly granted permission for the reproduction of diagrams and photographs. I would alsolike to thank the many readers of the second edition for their constructive and courteousfeedback which has enabled me to make the substantial improvements that now comprisethis third edition. Furthermore, I remain extremely grateful to my family and friends whohave continued to be supportive and express interest over the long period of the revisionfor this edition of the book. In particular, my very special thanks go to Judy for her con-tinued patience and unwavering support which enabled me to nally complete the task,albeit at the expense of evenings and weekends which could have been spent more fre-quently together. John M. Senior 24. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxiii Acknowledgements We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Figures 2.17 and 2.18 from Weakly guiding bers in Applied Optics, 10, p. 2552, OSA (Gloge, D. 1971), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 2.30 from Fiber manufacture at AT&T with the MCVD process in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-4(8), pp. 10161019, OSA (Jablonowski, D. 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IERE), 51(7/8), p. 333, Institution ofEngineering and Technology (Mossman, P. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 5.5(b) from Jointing loss in single-loss bres in Electronic Letters, 14(3), pp. 5455,Institution of Engineering and Technology (Gambling, W. A., Matsumura, H. and Cowley,A. G. 1978), with permission from IET; Figure 5.7 (a) from Figure 1, page 1, OpticalFiber Arc Fusion Splicer FSM-45F, No.: B- 06F0013Cm, 13 February 2007, http://www.fujikura.co.jp/00/splicer/front-page/pdf/e_fsm-45f.pdf; with permission fromFujikura Limited; Figure 5.7 (b) from Figure 4, page 1, Arc Fusion Splicer, SpliceMate,SpliceMate Brochure, http://www.fujikura.co.jp/00/splicer/front-page/pdf/splicemate_brochure.pdf, with permission from Fujikura Limited; Figure 5.8 (a) from Optical commun-ications research and technology in Proceedings of the IEEE, 66(7), pp. 744780, IEEE(Giallorenzi, T. 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OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxvAcknowledgements xxvTechnology (Yokohama, I., Okamoto, K. and Noda, J. 1985), with permission from IET;Figures 5.36 and 5.38 (a) from Optical demultiplexer using a silicon echette grating inIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-16, pp. 165169, IEEE (Fujii, Y., Aoyama,K. and Minowa, J. 1980), IEEE 1980, reproduced with permission; Figure 5.44from Filterless add multiplexer based on novel complex gratings assisted coupler inIEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(7), pp. 14501452, IEEE (Greenberg, M. andOrenstein, M. 2005), IEEE 2005, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.33 from Lowthreshold operation of 1.5 m DFB laser diodes in Journal of Lightwave Technology,LT-5, p. 822, IEEE (Tsuji, S., Ohishi, A., Nakamura, H., Hirao, M., Chinone, N. andMatsumura, H. 1987), IEEE 1987, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.37 adaptedfrom Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers: Design, Fabrication, Characterization,and Applications, Cambridge University Press (Wilmsen, C. 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Tsang (volume editor), copyright 1985, with permission fromElsevier; Figure 6.59 from PbEuTe lasers with 46 m wavelength mode with hot-wellepitaxy in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 25(6), pp. 13811384, IEEE (Ebe, H.,Nishijima, Y. and Shinohara, K. 1989), IEEE 1989, reproduced with permission; Figure7.5 reprinted from Optical Communications, 4, C. A. Burrus and B. I. Miller, Small-areadouble heterostructure aluminum-gallium arsenide electroluminsecent diode sources foroptical ber transmission lines, pp. 307369, 1971, copyright 1971, with permission fromElsevier; Figure 7.6 from High-power single-mode optical-ber coupling to InGaAsP1.3 m mesa-structure surface-emitting LEDs in Electronic Letters, 21(10), pp. 418419,Institution of Engineering and Technology (Uji, T. and Hayashi, J. 1985), with permissionfrom IET; Figure 7.8 from Sources and detectors for optical ber communications appli-cations: the rst 20 years in IEE Proceedings on Optoelectronics, 133(3), pp. 213228, 27. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxvixxvi AcknowledgementsInstitution of Engineering and Technology (Newman, D. H. and Ritchie, S. 1986), withpermission from IET; Figure 7.9 (a) from 2 Gbit/s and 600 Mbit/s single-mode bre-transmission experiments using a high-speed Zn-doped 1.3 m edge-emitting LED inElectronic Letters, 13(12), pp. 636637, Institution of Engineering and Technology(Fujita, S., Hayashi, J., Isoda, Y., Uji, T. and Shikada, M. 1987), with permission fromIET; Figure 7.9 (b) from Gigabit single-mode ber transmission using 1.3 m edge-emitting LEDs for broadband subscriber loops in Journal of Lightwave Technology,LT-5(10) pp. 15341541, OSA (Ohtsuka, T., Fujimoto, N., Yamaguchi, K., Taniguchi, A.,Naitou, N. and Nabeshima, Y. 1987), with permission from The Optical Society ofAmerica; Figure 7.10 (a) from A stripe-geometry double-heterostructure amplied-spontaneous-emission (superluminescent) diode in IEEE Journal of Quantum ElectronicsQE-9, p. 820 (Lee, T. P., Burrus, C. 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R. 1979), with permission from IET; Figures7.19 and 7.23 were published in Optical Fiber Telecommunications II, T. P. Lee, C. A.Burrus Jr and R. H. Saul, Light-emitting diodes for telecommunications, pp. 467507,edited by S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, 1988, Copyright Elsevier 1988; Figure 7.20from Lateral connement InGaAsP superluminescent diode at 1.3 m in IEEE Journal ofQuantum Electronics, QE19, p. 79, IEEE (Kaminow, I. P., Eisenstein, G., Stulz, L. W. andDentai, A. G. 1983), IEEE 1983, reproduced with permission; Figure 7.21 adapted fromFigure 6, page 121 of AlGaInN resonant-cavity LED devices studied by electromodulatedreectance and carrier lifetime techniques in IEE Proceedings on Optoelectronics,vol. 152, no. 2, pp. 118124, 8 April 2005, Institution of Engineering and Technology(Blume, G., Hosea, T. J. C., Sweeney, S. J., de Mierry, P., Lanceeld, D. 2005), with per-mission from IET; Figure 7.22 (b) from Light-emitting diodes for optical bre systems inRadio and Electronic Engineer (J. IERE), 51(7/8), p. 41, Institution of Engineering andTechnology (Carter, A. C. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 8.3 from OpticalCommunications Essentials (Telecommunications), McGraw-Hill Companies (Keiser, G.2003), with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies; Figure 8.19 (a) from Improvedgermanium avalanche photodiodes in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-16(9),pp. 10021007 (Mikami, O., Ando, H., Kanbe, H., Mikawa, T., Kaneda, T. and Toyama, Y.1980), IEEE 1980, reproduced with permission; Figure 8.19 (b) from High-sensitivityHi-Lo germanium avalanche photodiode for 1.5 m wavelength optical communicationin Electronic Letters, 20(13), pp. 552553, Institution of Engineering and Technology(Niwa, M., Tashiro, Y., Minemura, K. and Iwasaki, H. 1984), with permission from IET;Figure 8.24 from Impact ionisation in multi-layer heterojunction structures in ElectronicLetters, 16(12), pp. 467468, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Chin, R., 28. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxviiAcknowledgementsxxvii Holonyak, N., Stillman, G. E., Tang, J. Y. and Hess, K. 1980), with permission from IET; Figure 8.25 Reused with permission from Federico Capasso, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, 1, 457 (1983). Copyright 1983, AVS The Science & Technology Society; Figure 8.29 Reused with permission from P. D. Wright, R. J. Nelson, and T. Cella, Applied Physics Letters, 37, 192 (1980). Copyright 1980, American Institute of Physics; Figure 8.32 from MSM-based integrated CMOS wavelength-tunable optical receiver in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(6) pp. 12711273 (Chen, R., Chin, H., Miller, D. A. B., Ma, K. and Harris Jr., J. S. 2005); IEEE 2005, reproduced with per- mission; Figure 9.5 from Receivers for optical bre communications in Electronic and Radio Engineer, 51(7/8), p. 349, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Garrett, I. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 9.7 from Photoreceiver architectures beyond 40 Gbit/s, IEEE Symposium on Compound Semiconductor Integrated circuits, Monterey, California, USA, pp. 8588, October ( Ito, H. 2004), IEEE 2004, reproduced with per- mission; Figure 9.14 from GaAs FET tranimpedance front-end design for a wideband optical receiver in Electronic Letters, 15(20), pp. 650652, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Ogawa, K. and Chinnock, E. L. 1979), with permission from IET; Figure 9.15 published in Optical Fiber Telecommunications II, B. L. Kaspar, Receiver design, p. 689, edited by S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, 1988, Copyright Elsevier 1988; Figure 9.17 from An APD/FET optical receiver operating at 8 Gbit/s in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-5(3) pp. 344347, OSA (Kaspar, B. L., Campbell, J. C., Talman, J. R., Gnauck, A. H., Bowers, J. E. and Holden, W. S. 1987), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 9.23 Reprinted from Optical Fiber Telecommunications IV A: Components, B. L. Kaspar, O. Mizuhara and Y. K. Chen, High bit-rates receivers, trans- miters and electronics, pp. 784852, Figure 1.13, page 807, edited by I. P. Kaminow and T. Li, Copyright 2002, with permission from Elsevier; Figure 10.3 from Semiconductor laser optical ampliers for use in future ber systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology 6(4), p. 53, OSA (OMahony, M. J. 1988), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 10.8 from Noise performance of semiconductor optical ampliers, International Conference on Trends in Communication, EUROCON, 2001, Bratislava, Slovakia, 1, pp. 161163, July (Udvary, E. 2001), IEEE 2001, reproduced with permis- sion; Figure 10.17 from Properties of ber Raman ampliers and their applicability to digital optical communication systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 6(7), p. 1225, IEEE (Aoki, Y. 1988), IEEE 1988, reproduced with permission; Figure 10.18 (a) from Semiconductor Raman amplier for terahertz bandwidth optical communication in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 20(4), pp. 705711, IEEE (Suto, K., Saito, T., Kimura, T., Nishizawa, J. I. and Tanube, T. 2002), IEEE 2002, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.2 from Scaling rules for thin-lm optical waveguides, Applied Optics, 13(8), p. 1857, OSA (Kogelnik, H. and Ramaswamy, V. 1974), with permission from the Optical Society of America; Figure 11.7 Reused with permission from M. Papuchon, Y. Combemale, X. Mathieu, D. B. Ostrowsky, L. Reiber, A. M. Roy, B. Sejourne, and M. Werner, Applied Physics Letters, 27, 289 (1975). Copyright 1975, American Institute of Physics; Figure 11.13 from Beam-steering micromirrors for large optical cross-connects in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 21(3), pp. 634642, OSA (Aksyuk, V. A. et al. 2003), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 11.23 from 5 Git/s modulation characteristics of optical intensity modulator monolithically integrated with DFB laser in Electronic Letters, 25(5), pp. 12851287, Institution of Engineering and 29. 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Top.Quantum Electronics, 13(1) pp. 2231, IEEE (Welch, D. F. et al. 2007), IEEE 2007,reproduced with permission; Figure 11.33 (c) from Monolithically integrated 100-channelWDM channel selector employing low-crosstalk AWG in IEEE Photonics Techno-logy Letters, 16(11), pp. 24812483, IEEE (Kikuchi, N., Shibata, Y., Okamoto, H.,Kawaguchi, Y., Oku, S., Kondo, Y. and Tohmori, Y. 2004), IEEE 2004, reproducedwith permission; Figure 11.35 Reused with permission from P. W. Smith, I. P. Kaminow,P. J. Maloney, and L. W. Stulz, Applied Physics Letters, 33, 24 (1978). Copyright 1978,American Institute of Physics; Figure 11.38 from All-optical ip-op multimode interfer-ence bistable laser diode in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(5), pp. 968970, IEEE(Takenaka, M., Raburn, M. and Nakano, Y. 2005), IEEE 2005, reproduced with permis-sion; Figure 11.42 from Optical bistability, phonomic logic and optical computationin Applied Optics, 25, pp. 15501564, OSA (Smith, S. D. 1986), with permission fromThe Optical Society of America; Figure 12.4 from Non-linear phase distortion and itscompensation in LED direct modulation in Electronic Letters, 13(6), pp. 162163,Institution of Engineering and Technology (Asatani, K. and Kimura, T. 1977), withpermission from IET; Figures 12.6 and 12.7 from Springer-Verlag, Topics in AppliedPhysics, vol. 39, 1982, pp. 161200, Lightwave transmitters, P. W. Schumate Jr. and M.DiDomenico Jr., in H. Kressel, ed., Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communications,with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media; Figure 12.12 fromElectronic circuits for high bit rate digital ber optic communication systems in IEEETrans. Communications, COM-26(7), pp. 10881098, IEEE (Gruber, J., Marten, P.,Petschacher, R. and Russer, P. 1978), IEEE 1978, reproduced with permission; Figure12.13 from Design and stability analysis of a CMOS feedback laser driver in IEEE Trans.Instrum. 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Hasegawa, 2002 Springer, with kindpermission from Springer Science and Business Media; Figure 13.7 from Techniquesfor multigigabit coherent optical transmission in Journal of Lightwave Technology,LT-5, p. 1466, IEEE (Smith, D. W. 1987), IEEE 1987, reproduced with permission;Figure 13.15 from Costas loop experiments for a 10.6 m communications receiver inIEEE Tras. Communications, COM-31(8), pp. 10001002, IEEE (Phillip, H. K., Scholtz,A. L., Bonekand, E. and Leeb, W. 1983), IEEE 1983, reproduced with permission;Figure 13.18 from Semiconductor laser homodyne optical phase lock loop in ElectronicLetters, 22, pp. 421422, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Malyon, D. J.,Smith, D. W. and Wyatt, R. 1986), with permission from IET; Figure 13.32 from Aconsideration of factors affecting future coherent lightwave communication systems inJournal of Lightwave Technology, 6, p. 686, OSA (Nosu, K. and Iwashita, K. 1988), withpermission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 13.34 from RZ-DPSK eld trailover 13 100 km of installed non-slope matched submarine bers in Journal of LightwaveTechnology, 23(1) pp. 95103, OSA (Cai, J. X. et al. 2005), with permission from TheOptical Society of America; Figure 13.35 from Polarization-multiplexed 2.8 Gbit/s syn-chronous QPSK transmission with real-time polarization tracking in Proceedings of the33rd European Conference on Optical Communications, Berlin, Germany, pp. 263264,3 September (Pfau, T. et al. 2007), with permission from VDE Verlag GMBH; Figure 13.36from Hybrid 107-Gb/s polarization-multiplexed DQPSK and 42.7-Gb/s DQPSK transmission 31. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxxxx Acknowledgementsat 1.4 bits/s/Hz spectral efciency over 1280 km of SSMF and 4 bandwidth-managedROADMs in Proceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Optical Communications,Berlin, Germany, PD1.9, September, with permission from VDE Verlag GMBH; Figure13.37 from Coherent optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing in ElectronicLetters, 42(10), pp. 587588, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Shieh, W. andAthaudage, C. 2006), with permission from IET; Figure 14.1 (a) from Mode scrambler foroptical bres in Applied Optics, 16(4), pp. 10451049, OSA (Ikeda, M., Murakami, Y.and Kitayama, C. 1977), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure14.1 (b) from Measurement of baseband frequency reponse of multimode bre by using anew type of mode scrambler in Electronic Letters, 13(5), pp. 146147, Institution ofEngineering and Technology (Seikai, S., Tokuda, M., Yoshida, K. and Uchida, N. 1977),with permission from IET; Figure 14.6 from An improved technique for the measurementof low optical absorption losses in bulk glass in Opto-electronics, 5, p. 323, Institution ofEngineering and Technology (White, K. I. and Midwinter, J. E. 1973); with permissionfrom IET; Figure 14.8 from Self pulsing GaAs laser for ber dispersion measurement inIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-8, pp. 844846, IEEE (Gloge, D., Chinnock,E. L. and Lee, T. P. 1972), IEEE 1972, reproduced with permission; Figure 14.12,image of 86038B Optical Dispersion Analyzer, Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2005,Reproduced with Permission, Courtesy of Agilent Technologies, Inc.; Figure 14.13 (a)from Refractive index prole measurements of diffused optical waveguides in AppliedOptics, 13(9), pp. 21122116, OSA (Martin, W. E. 1974), with permission from TheOptical Society of America; Figures 14.13 (b) and 14.14 Reused with permission fromL. G. Cohen, P. Kaiser, J. B. Mac Chesney, P. B. OConnor, and H. M. Presby, AppliedPhysics Letters, 26, 472 (1975). Copyright 1975, American Institute of Physics; Figures14.17 and 14.18 (a) Reused with permission from F. M. E. Sladen, D. N. Payne, and M. J.Adams, Applied Physics Letters, 28, 255 (1976). Copyright 1976, American Institute ofPhysics; Figure 14.19 from An Introduction to Optical Fibers, McGraw-Hill Companies(Cherin, A. H. 1983), with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies; Figure 14.26Reused with permission from L. G. Cohen and P. Glynn, Review of Scientic Instruments,44, 1749 (1973). Copyright 1973, American Institute of Physics; Figure 14.31 (a) from EXFOhttp://documents.exfo.com/appnotes/anote044-ang.pdf, accessed 21 September 2007, withpermission from EXFO; Figure 14.31 (b) from http://www.atelecommunications.com,Atelecommunications Inc., accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from FujikuraLimited; Figure 14.35 from EXFO, OTDR FTB-7000B http://documents.exfo.com/appnotes/anote087-ang.pdf, accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from EXFO;Figure 14.36 from EXFO P-OTDR, accessed 21 September 2007, with permission fromEXFO; Figure 15.1 from Future optical networks in Journal of Lightwave Technology,24(12), pp. 46844696 (OMahony, M. J., Politi, C., Klonidis, D., Nejabati, R. andSimeonidou, D. 2006), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figures15.14 (a) and (b) from ITU-T Recommendation G.709/Y.1331(03/03) Interfaces for theOptical Transport Network (TON), 2003, reproduced with kind permission from ITU;Figures 15.25 and 15.26 from Enabling technologies for next-generation optical packet-switching networks in Proceedings of IEEE 94(5), pp. 892910 (Gee-Kung, C., Jianjun, Y.,Yong-Kee, Y., Chowdhury, A. and Zhensheng, J. 2006), IEEE 2006, reproduced withpermission; Figures 15.30, 15.31 and 15.32 from www.telegeography.com, accessed17 October 2007, reproduced with permission; Figure 15.34 from Transparent optical 32. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxi Acknowledgementsxxxiprotection ring architectures and applications in Journal of Lightwave Technology,23(10), pp. 33883403 (Ming-Jun, L., Soulliere, M. J., Tebben, D. J., Nderlof, L., Vaughn,M. D. and R. E. Wagner, R. E. 2005), with permission from The Optical Society ofAmerica; Figure 15.46 from Hybrid DWDM-TDM long-reach PON for next-generationoptical access in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 24(7), pp. 28272834 (Talli, G.and Townsend, P. D. 2006), with permission from The Optical Society of America;Figure 15.52 from IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (ETHERNET), accessed 17 October 2007,reproduced with permission; Figure 15.53 (a) from ITU-T Recommendation G.985(03/2003) 100 Mbit/s point-to-pint Ethernet based optical access system, accessed22 October 2007, reproduced with kind permission from ITU; Figure 15.53 (b) from ITU-TRecommendation Q.838.1 (10/2004) Requirements and analysis for the managementinterface of Ethernet passive optical networks (EPON), accessed 19 October 2007, repro-duced with kind permission from ITU; Table 15.4 from Deployment of submarine opticalber bacle and communication systems since 2001, www.atlantic-cable.com/Cables/CableTimeLine/index2001.htm, reproduced with permission. In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, andwe would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so. 33. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxii List of symbols and abbreviationsA constant, area (cross-section, emission), far-eld pattern size, mode ampli-tude, wave amplitude (A0)A21 Einstein coefcient of spontaneous emissionAcpeak amplitude of the subcarrier waveform (analog transmission)a ber core radius, parameter which denes the asymmetry of a planar guide(given by Eq. (10.21)), baseband message signal (a(t))ab() effective ber core radiusaeffbend attenuation berakinteger 1 or 0am() relative attenuation between optical powers launched into multimode andsingle-mode bersB constant, electrical bandwidth (post-detection), magnetic ux density, modeamplitude, wave amplitude (B0)B12, B21Einstein coefcients of absorption, stimulated emissionBFmodal birefringenceBb ber bandwidthBFPAmode bandwidth (FabryProt amplier)Bmbandwidth of an intensity-modulated optical signal m(t), maximum 3 dBbandwidth (photodiode)Boptoptical bandwidthBrrecombination coefcient for electrons and holesBTbit rate, when the system becomes dispersion limited (BT(DL))b normalized propagation constant for a ber, ratio of luminance to compositevideo, linewidth broadening factor (injection laser)C constant, capacitance, crack depth (ber), wave coupling coefcient per unitlength, coefcient incorporating Einstein coefcientsCaeffective input capacitance of an optical ber receiver amplierCdoptical detector capacitanceCfcapacitance associated with the feedback resistor of a transimpedanceoptical ber receiver amplierCjjunction capacitance (photodiode)CLtotal optical ber channel loss in decibels, including the dispersionequalization penalty (CLD)C0wave amplitudeCTtotal capacitanceCTpolarization crosstalk 34. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxiiiList of symbols and abbreviationsxxxiii c velocity of light in a vacuum, constant (c1, c2) citap coefcients for a transversal equalizer D amplitude coefcient, electric ux density, distance, diffusion coefcient, corrugation period, decision threshold in digital optical ber transmission, ber dispersion parameters: material (DM); prole (DP); total rst order (DT); waveguide (DW), detectivity (photodiode), specic detectivity (D*) Dcminority carrier diffusion coefcient Dffrequency deviation ratio (subcarrier FM) DLdispersionequalization penalty in decibels DPfrequency deviation ratio (subcarrier PM) DTtotal chromatic dispersion (bers) d ber core diameter, hole diameter, distance, width of the absorption region (photodetector), thickness of recombination region (optical source), pin diameter (mode scrambler) df- far-eld mode-eld diameter (single-mode ber) dnnear-eld mode-eld diameter (single-mode ber) dober outer (cladding) diameter E electric eld, energy, Youngs modulus, expected value of a random vari- able, electron energy Eaactivation energy of homogeneous degradation for an LED EFFermi level (energy), quasi-Fermi level located in the conduction band (EFc), valence band (EFv) of a semiconductor Egseparation energy between the valence and conduction bands in a semicon- ductor (bandgap energy) Em(t) subcarrier electric eld (analog transmission) Eooptical energy Eqseparation energy of the quasi-Fermi levels e electronic charge, base for natural logarithms F probability of failure, transmission factor of a semiconductorexternal inter- face, excess avalanche noise factor (F(M)), optical amplier noise gure Fourier transformation Fnnoise gure (electronic amplier) Fto total noise gure for system of cascaded optical ampliers f frequency fDpeak-to-peak frequency deviation (PFMIM) fdpeak frequency deviation (subcarrier FM and PM) foFabryProt resonant frequency (optical amplier), pulse rate (PFMIM) G open loop gain of an optical ber receiver amplier, photoconductive gain, cavity gain of a semiconductor laser amplier Gi (r)amplitude function in the WKB method Gooptical gain (phototransistor) Gpparametric gain (ber amplier) GRRaman gain (ber amplier) Gssingle-pass gain of a semiconductor laser amplier Gsn Gaussian (distribution) g degeneracy parameter 35. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxivxxxiv List of symbols and abbreviationsCgain coefcient per unit length (laser cavity)gm transconductance of a eld effect transistor, material gain coefcientg0 unsaturated material gain coefcientgR power Raman gain coefcientCththreshold gain per unit length (laser cavity)Hmagnetic eldH() optical power transfer function (ber), circuit transfer functionHA()optical ber receiver amplier frequency response (including any equalization)HCL() closed loop current to voltage transfer function (receiver amplier)Heq() equalizer transfer function (frequency response)HOL() open loop current to voltage transfer function (receiver amplier)Hout()output pulse spectrum from an optical ber receiverhPlancks constant, thickness of a planar waveguide, power impulse response for optical ber (h(t)), mode coupling parameter (PM ber)hA(t)optical ber receiver amplier impulse response (including any equalization)heff effective thickness of a planar waveguidehFEcommon emitter current gain for a bipolar transistorhf(t)optical ber impulse responsehout(t)output pulse shape from an optical ber receiverhp(t)input pulse shape to an optical ber receiverht(t)transmitted pulse shape on an optical ber linkIelectric current, optical intensityIb background-radiation-induced photocurrent (optical receiver)Ibiasbias current for an optical detectorIc collector current (phototransistor)Id dark current (optical detector)Io maximum optical intensityIp photocurrent generated in an optical detectorIS output current from photodetector resulting from intermediate frequency in coherent receiverIththreshold current (injection laser)ielectric currentia optical receiver preamplier shunt noise currentiamp optical receiver, preamplier total noise currentiD decision threshold current (digital transmission)id photodiode dark noise currentidet output current from an optical detectorif noise current generated in the feedback resistor of an optical ber receiver transimpedance preamplieriN total noise current at a digital optical ber receiverin multiplied shot noise current at the output of an APD excluding dark noise currentis shot noise current on the photocurrent for a photodiodeiSAmultiplied shot noise current at the output of an APD including the noise current 36. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxvList of symbols and abbreviationsxxxvisigsignal current obtained in an optical ber receiveritthermal noise current generated in a resistoriTS total shot noise current for a photodiode without internal gainJ Bessel function, current densityJth threshold current density (injection laser)j 1K Boltzmanns constant, constant, modied Bessel functionKIstress intensity factor, for an elliptical crack (KIC)k wave propagation constant in a vacuum (free space wave number), wavevector for an electron in a crystal, ratio of ionization rates for holes andelectrons, integer, coupling coefcient for two interacting waveguidemodes, constantkfangular frequency deviation (subcarrier FM)kpphase deviation constant (subcarrier PM)L length (ber), distance between mirrors (laser), coupling length (wave-guide modes)Lalength of amplier (asymmetric twin-waveguide)LAamplifying space (soliton transmission)Lac insertion loss of access coupler in distribution systemLBbeat length in a monomode optical berLbc coherence length in a monomode optical berLccharacteristic length (ber)LDdiffusion length of charge carriers (LED), ber dispersion lengthLex star coupler excess loss in distribution systemLmapdispersion management map periodL0constant with dimensions of lengthLtlateral misalignment loss at an optical ber jointLtr tap ratio loss in distribution system transmission loss factor (transmissivity) of an optical berl azimuthal mode number, distance, lengthlaatomic spacing (bond distance)l0wave coupling lengthM avalanche multiplication factor, material dispersion parameter, total numberof guided modes or mode volume; for a multimode step index ber (Ms); formultimode graded index ber (Mg), mean value (M1) and mean square value(M2) of a random variableMasafety margin in an optical power budgetMop optimum avalanche multiplication factorMxexcess avalanche noise factor (also denoted as F(M))m radial mode number, Weibull distribution parameter, intensity-modulatedoptical signal (m(t)), mean value of a random variable, integer, opticalmodulation index (subcarrier amplitude modulation)mamodulation indexN integer, density of atoms in a particular energy level (e.g. N1, N2, N3),minority carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor material, number ofinput/output ports on a ber star coupler, number of nodes on distribution 37. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxvixxxviList of symbols and abbreviationssystem, noise current, dimensionless combination of pulse and ber param-eters (soliton)NAnumerical aperture of an optical berNEP noise equivalent powerNggroup index of an optical waveguideNge effective group index or group index of a single-mode waveguideN0dened by Eq. (11.80)Npnumber of photons per bit (coherent transmission)n refractive index (e.g. n1, n2, n3), stress corrosion susceptibility, negative-typesemiconductor material, electron density, number of chips (OCDM)neeffective refractive index of a planar waveguideneffeffective refractive index of a single-mode bern0refractive index of airnsp spontaneous emission factor (injection laser)P electric power, minority carrier concentration in p-type semiconductor mater-ial, probability of error (P(e)), of detecting a zero level (P(0)), of detecting aone level (P(1)), of detecting z photons in a particular time period (P(z)),conditional probability of detecting a zero when a one is transmitted(P(0|1)), of detecting a one when a zero is transmitted (P(1|0)), opticalpower (P1, P2, etc.)Patotal power in a baseband message signal a(t)PBthreshold optical power for Brillouin scatteringPbbackward traveling signal power (semiconductor laser amplier), powertransmitted through ber samplePcoptical power coupled into a step index ber, optical power levelPDoptical power densityPdc d.c. optical output powerPeoptical power emitted from an optical sourcePGoptical power in a guided modePimean input (transmitted) optical power launched into a berPin input signal power (semiconductor laser amplier)Pintinternally generated optical power (optical source)PLoptical power of local oscillator signal (coherent system)Pmtotal power in an intensity-modulated optical signal m(t)Pomean output (received) optical power from a berPoptmean optical power traveling in a berPoutinitial output optical (prior to degradation) power from an optical sourcePpoptical pump power (ber amplier)Ppo peak received optical powerPrreference optical power level, optical power levelPRthreshold optical power for Raman scatteringPRa(t)backscattered optical power (Rayleigh) within a berPSoptical power of incoming signal (coherent system)Pstotal power transmitted through a ber samplePsc optical power scattered from a berPtoptical transmitter power, launch power (Ptx) 38. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxvii List of symbols and abbreviations xxxvii p crystal momentum, average photoelastic coefcient, positive-type semicon- ductor material, probability density function (p(x)) q integer, fringe shift q0dimensionless parameter (soliton transmission) R photodiode responsivity, radius of curvature of a ber bend, electrical resist- ance (e.g. Rin, Rout); facet reectivity (R1, R2) R12 upward transition rate for electrons from energy level 1 to level 2 R21 downward transition rate for electrons from energy level 2 to level 1 Raeffective input resistance of an optical ber receiver preamplier Rbbias resistance, for optical ber receiver preamplier (Rba) Rccritical radius of an optical ber RDradiance of an optical source REdBratio of electrical output power to electrical input power in decibels for an optical ber system Rffeedback resistance in an optical ber receiver transimpedance preamplier RLload resistance associated with an optical ber detector ROdBratio of optical output power to optical input power in decibels for an optical ber system Rttotal carrier recombination rate (semiconductor optical source) RTL total load resistance within an optical ber receiver r radial distance from the ber axis, Fresnel reection coefcient, mirror reectivity, electro-optic coefcient. regenerated electron rate in an optical detector rER, rETreection and transmission coefcients, respectively, for the electric eld at a planar, guidecladding interface rHR, rHTreection and transmission coefcients respectively for the magnetic eld at a planar, guidecladding interface rnr nonradiative carrier recombination rate per unit volume rpincident photon rate at an optical detector rrradiative carrier recombination rate per unit volume rttotal carrier recombination rate per unit volume S fraction of captured optical power, macroscopic stress, dispersion slope (ber), power spectral density S() Sffracture stress Si(r) phase function in the WKB method Sm() spectral density of the intensity-modulated optical signal m(t) S/N peak signal power to rms noise power ratio, with peak-to-peak signal power [(S/N)pp] with rms signal power [(S/N)rms] S0scale parameter; zero-dispersion slope (ber) Sttheoretical cohesive strength s pin spacing (mode scrambler) T temperature, time, arbitrary parameter representing soliton pulse duration Tainsertion loss resulting from an angular offset between jointed optical bers Tc10 to 90% rise time arising from chromatic dispersion on an optical ber link TD10 to 90% rise time for an optical detector 39. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxviiixxxviii List of symbols and abbreviationsTFctive temperatureTlinsertion loss resulting from a lateral offset between jointed optical bersTn10 to 90% rise time arising from intermodal dispersion on an opticalber linkT0threshold temperature (injection laser), nominal pulse period (PFMIM)TR10 to 90% rise time at the regenerator circuit input (PFMIM)TS10 to 90% rise time for an optical sourceTsyst total 10 to 90% rise time for an optical ber systemTTtotal insertion loss at an optical ber jointTttemperature rise at time tTmaximum temperature riset time, carrier transit time, slow(ts), fast (tf)tctime constanttdswitch-on delay (laser)te1/e pulse width from the centertr10 to 90% rise timeU eigenvalue of the ber coreV electrical voltage, normalized frequency for an optical ber or planarwaveguideVbias bias voltage for a photodiodeVccutoff value of normalized frequency (ber)VCC collector supply voltageVCE collectoremitter voltage (bipolar transistor)VEE emitter supply voltageVeffeffective normalized frequency (ber)Voptvoltage reading corresponding to the total optical power in a berVsc voltage reading corresponding to the scattered optical power in a berv electrical voltagevaamplier series noise voltagevA(t) receiver amplier output voltagevccrack velocityvddrift velocity of carriers (photodiode)vggroup velocityvout(t) output voltage from an RC lter circuitvpphase velocityW eigenvalue of the ber cladding, random variableWeelectric pulse widthWooptical pulse widthw depletion layer width (photodiode)X random variablex coordinate, distance, constant, evanescent eld penetration depth, slabthickness, grating line spacingY constant, shunt admittance, random variabley coordinate, lateral offset at a ber jointZ random variable, constantZ0electrical impedance 40. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxixList of symbols and abbreviationsxxxix zcoordinate, number of photons zm average or mean number of photons arriving at a detector in a timeperiod zmd average number of photons detected in a time period characteristic refractive index prole for ber (prole parameter), optimumprole parameter (op), linewidth enhancement factor (injection laser), opticallink lossA loss coefcient per unit length (laser cavity)cr connector loss at transmitter and receiver in decibelsdB signal attenuation in decibels per unit lengthfc ber cable loss in decibels per kilometeriinternal wavelength loss per unit length (injection laser)jber joint loss in decibels per kilometermmirror loss per unit length (injection laser)Nsignal attenuation in nepers0absorption coefcientpber transmission loss at the pump wavelength (ber amplier)rradiation attenuation coefcient wave propagation constantB gain factor (injection laser cavity)cisothermal compressibility0proportionality constant2second-order dispersion coefcientrdegradation rate optical connement factor (semiconductor laser amplier) angle, attenuation coefcient per unit length for a ber, nonlinear coefcientresulting from the Kerr effect p surface energy of a material R Rayleigh scattering coefcient for a ber relative refractive index difference between the ber core and cladding f linewidth of single-frequency injection laser G peaktrough ratio of the passband ripple (semiconductor laser amplier) n index difference between ber core and cladding (n/n1 fractional indexdifference) E phase shift associated with transverse electric waves f uncorrelated source frequency widths H phase shift associated with transverse magnetic waves optical source spectral width (linewidth), mode spacing (laser) T intermodal dispersion time in an optical ber Tg delay difference between an extreme meridional ray and an axial ray for agraded index ber Ts delay difference between an extreme meridional ray and an axial ray for astep index ber, with mode coupling ( Tsc) Tg polarization mode dispersion in ber electric permittivity, of free space (0), relative (r), semiconductor (s),extinction ratio (optical transmitter) 41. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xlxl List of symbols and abbreviationssolid acceptance anglequantum efciency (optical detector)ang angular coupling efciency (ber joint)c coupling efciency (optical source to ber)D differential external quantum efciency (optical source)epexternal power efciency (optical source)ext external quantum efciency (light-emitting devices)i internal quantum efciency injection laserint internal quantum efciency (LED)lat lateral coupling efciency (ber joint)pcoverall power conversion efciency (optical source)T total external quantum efciency (optical source)angle, ber acceptance angle (a)B Bragg diffraction angle, blaze angle diffraction gratingacoustic wavelength, period for perturbations in a ber, optical grating period, spacing between holes and pitch (photonic crystal ber)c cutoff period for perturbations in a beroptical wavelengthB Bragg wavelength (DFB laser)c long-wavelength cutoff (photodiode), cutoff wavelength for single-mode ber, effective cutoff wavelength ( ce)0 wavelength at which rst-order dispersion is zeromagnetic permeability, relative permeability, (r), permeability of free space (0)optical source bandwidth in gigahertzpolarization rotation in a single-mode optical berf spectral density of the radiation energy at a transition frequency fstandard deviation (rms pulse width), variance ( 2)c rms pulse broadening resulting from chromatic dispersion in a berm rms pulse broadening resulting from material dispersion in a bern rms pulse broadening resulting from intermodal dispersion in a graded index ber (g), in a step index ber (s)T total rms pulse broadening in a ber or ber linktime period, bit period, signaling interval, pulse duration, 3 dB pulse width ( (3 dB)), retarded time21spontaneous transition lifetime between energy levels 2 and 1E time delay in a transversal equalizere 1/e full width pulse broadening due to dispersion on an optical ber linkg group delayi injected (minority) carrier lifetimephphoton lifetime (semiconductor laser)r radiative minority carrier lifetimespspontaneous emission lifetime (equivalent to 21)linear retardationangle, critical angle (c), photon density, phase shiftscalar quantity representing E or H eld 42. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xliList of symbols and abbreviationsxli angular frequency, of the subcarrier waveform in analog transmission (c), of the modulating signal in analog transmission (m), pump frequency (p), Stokes component (s), anti-Stokes component (a), intermediate frequency of coherent heterodyne receiver ( IF), normalized spot size of the funda- mental mode 0spot size of the fundamental mode vector operator, Laplacian operator (2) AD analog to digital a.c.alternating current ADCCP advanced data communications control procedure (optical networks) AFC automatic frequency control AGC automatic gain control AMamplitude modulation AMI alternate mark inversion (line code) ANSIAmerican National Standards Institute AOWCall-optical wavelength converter APD avalanche photodiode ARantireection (surface, coating) ARROW antiresonant reecting optical waveguide ASE amplied spontaneous emission (optical amplier) ASK amplitude shift keying ASONautomatic switched optical network ATM alternative test method (ber), asynchronous transfer mode (transmission) AWG arrayed-waveguide grating BCH Bose Chowdhry Hocquenghem (line codes) BER bit-error-rate BERTS bit-error-rate test set BGP Border Gateway Protocol BHburied heterostructure (injection laser) BHC burst header cell (optical switch) BHP burst header packet (optical switch) BLSRbi-directional line-switched ring (optical networks) BOD bistable optical device BPSKbinary phase shift keying BXC waveband cross-connect (optical networks) CAPEX capital expenditure CATVcommon antenna television CCTVclosed circuit television CDH constricted double heterojunction (injection laser) CMI coded mark inversion CMOScomplementary metal oxide silicon CNR carrier to noise ratio COcentral ofce (telephone switching center) CPFSK continuous phase frequency shift keying CPU central processing unit 43. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xliixlii List of symbols and abbreviationsCRZ chirped return to zeroCSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision DetectionCSP channelled substrate planar (injection laser)CSRZcarrier-suppressed return to zeroCWcontinuous wave or operationCWDMcoarse wavelength division multiplexingDA digital to analogDBduobinary (line code)dBdecibelDBPSK differential binary phase shift keyingDBR distributed Bragg reector (laser)DIMdirect intensity modulationDCdepressed cladding (ber design)d.c.direct currentDCC data control channel (optical networks)DCF dispersion-compensating berDDF dispersion-decreasing berDFdispersion attened (single-mode ber)DFB distributed feedback (injection laser)DFF dispersion-attened berDFG difference frequency generation (nonlinear effect)DGD differential group delayDGE dynamic gain equalizerDHdouble heterostructure or heterojunction (injection laser or LED)DIdelay interferometerDLD dark line defect (semiconductor optical source)DMS dispersion-managed solitonDOP degree of polarizationDPSKdifferential phase shift keyingDQPSK differential quadrature phase shift keyingDSdispersion shifted (single-mode ber)DSB double sideband (amplitude modulation)DSD dark spot defect (laser)DSF dispersion-shifted berDSL digital subscriber line, asymmetrical (ADSL), very high speed (VDSL)DSP digital signal processingDSTMdynamic synchronous transfer modeDUT device under test (ber measurement)DWDMdense wavelength division multiplexingDWELL dots-in-well (photodiode)DXC digital cross-connectE/O electrical (or electronic) to optical conversionEAM electro-absorption modulatorECL emitter-coupler logicEDFAerbium-doped ber amplierEDWAerbium-doped waveguide amplier 44. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xliiiList of symbols and abbreviations xliii EHtraditional mode designation EIA Electronics Industries Association ELEDedge-emitting light-emitting diode ELH extended long haul EMFAerbium micro-ber amplier EMI electromagnetic i