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History of Org Behavior
• A Short History of Organizational Behavior
• F.W. Taylor and Scientific Management• Mary Parker Follett• Hawthorne Studies• Theory X and Y
F W Taylor
• Scientific management: the systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency
• The amount of and effort each employee expends to produce a unit of output can be reduced by increasing specialization and the division of labor
Principles of Scientific Management
• Study the way employees perform their tasks, gather informal job knowledge that employees possess, and experiment with ways of improving the way tasks are performed
• Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard operating procedures
• Carefully select employees so that they possess skills and abilities that match the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the established rules and procedures
• Establish an acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level
Principles of Scientific Management
Mary Parker Follett- Human side The “Hawthorne Effect” Douglas McGregor:
Average employee is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possibleManager’s task is to supervise closely and control employees through reward and punishment
Employees will do what is good for the organization when committedManager’s task is create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for employees to be exercise initiative
THEORY X THEORY Y
Other theories
What is an organization?
Groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose
–Structured patterns of interaction –Coordinated tasks–Work toward some purpose
Organizational Behavior
• The study of individual behavior and group dynamics in organizations
• Understand• Predict• Manage
The study and application of how employees behave
within organizations
Levels of Analysis
Group LevelIndividual Level
Organizational Level
Group Level
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
LearningMotivationPersonalityAttitude, values MotivationPerceptionJob satisfaction
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
Open Systems View of Organization
Outputs: Products Services
Inputs:MaterialCapitalHuman
Task environment:CompetitorsUnionsRegulatory agenciesClients
Structure
Task Technology
People(Actors)
Organizational Boundary
Why Study Org Behavior?
Competitive advantage of an organization today is represented by:
Human resource of an organization and how they are managed.
Widely recognized as-human capital
Describe how people behave under a variety of conditionUnderstand why people behave as they doPredict future employee behaviour
TRENDSGLOBALISATION
Implications of globalisation
New organisational structures Different forms of communicationMore competition, change, mergers, downsizing, stressNeed more sensitivity to cultural differences
TRENDS CHANGING WORKFORCE
More women in workforce and professionsDifferent needs of Gen-X, Gen-Y and baby-boomersDiversity has advantages, but firms need to adjust throughCultural awarenessFamily-friendly policiesEmpowerment
Employment relationshipEmployees perform many tasks, not a specific jobWorking from home, usually with a computer connection to the officeVirtual teams(operate across space, time and organisational boundaries; mainly communicate through electronic technologies)
Studying Organizational Behavior
ActivityEFFECT OF POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Personality
What is personality?
The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others.– Combines a set of physical and mentalcharacteristics that reflect how a person looks,thinks, acts, and feels.– Predictable relationships are expected between people’s personalities and their behaviors
Factors affecting personality
HERIDITYPhysical characteristics Gender
ENVIORNMENTCultural Social Situational factors
PERSONALITY
Personality and the self-concept
– Personality dynamics.•The ways in which an individual integrates and organizes social traits, values and motives ,personal conceptions, and emotional adjustments.– Self-concept. • The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.• Self-esteem.• Self-efficacy.
How do personalities differ?
“Big Five” personality dimensions.– Extraversion• Being outgoing, sociable, assertive.– Agreeableness.• Being good-natured, trusting, cooperative.– Conscientiousness.• Being responsible, dependable, persistent.– Emotional stability.• Being unworried, secure, relaxed.– Openness to experience.• Being imaginative, curious, broad-minded.
Personal conception traits.
Locus of control.Authoritarianism/dogmatism.Machiavellianism. Self-monitoring.
Locus of control
– The extent to which a person feels able to control his/her own life.– Externals •More extraverted in their interpersonalrelationships and more oriented toward the world around them.– Internals • More introverted and more oriented towards their own feelings and ideas.
Information processing Internals make more attempt to acquire information, are less satisfied with the amount of information they possess and are better at utilizing information
Job Satisfaction Internals are generally more satisfied, less alienated and there is strong job satisfaction/ performance relationship for them
Performance Internals perform better on learning and problem solving tasks, when performance leads to valued rewards
Self control, risk & anxiety Internals exhibit better self control, are more cautious, engage in less risky behavior and are less anxious
Motivation, expectancies' and results Internals display greater work motivation, see a stronger relationship between what they do and what happens to them, expect that working hard leads to good performance, feel more control over their time.
Response to others Internals are more independent, more reliant on their own judgment and less susceptible to the influence of others ; they are more likely to accept information on its merit
Locus of control
Authoritarianism/dogmatism
– Authoritarianism.• Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority.– Dogmatism.• Tendency to view the world as a threatening place.
high-Machiavellian personality
Approach situations logically and thoughtfully: a) Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.b) Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past
promises, or others’ opinions.c) Are skilled at influencing others.d) Try to exploit loosely structured situations.e) Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in
highly structured situations.
Note
Machiavellianism (Mach) refers to the degree to which an individual is practical in his approach, maintains an emotional distance from others, and believes that ends justify the means. Research has revealed that individuals who score high on Mach are good at manipulating others and try to win by any means. They do not need to be persuaded to work but instead are able to successfully persuade others. People having a high Mach perform well in situations that involve face-to-face meetings. They are especially productive in jobs that require the use of bargaining (persuasion) skills and in jobs that offer substantial rewards for the achievement of goal
low-Machiavellian personality
a) Accept direction imposed by others in loosely structured situations.
b) Work hard to do well in highly structured situations.
c) Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.d) Are unlikely to lie or cheat.
Self-monitoring
– A person’s ability to adjust his/her behavior toexternal situational factors.– High self-monitors.
• Sensitive to external cues.• Behave differently in different situations.
– Low self-monitors.• Not sensitive to external cues.• Not able to disguise their behaviors
MOTIVATION
The Basic Motivation Process
NEEDS DRIVES INCENTIVES
What is Motivation?
Motivation =The level and directionof EFFORT expendedat work.
Derived from latin word “movere” means to move.
Content theories.• Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill.
Major content theories.a) Maslows Hierarchy of needs theory.b) Herzberg’s Two factor theory c) Alderfer’s ERG theory d) Mc Clelland Process theories.
• Focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes. Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.
Major content theories.e) Vroom’s & Porter theoryf) Equity theory
Categories of motivation theories.
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
ESTEEM NEEDS
LOVE NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS
Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
SELF-ACTUALIZATIONPersonal growth,realization of potential
ESTEEM NEEDSTitles, status symbols,promotions, banding
SOCIAL NEEDSFormal and informalwork groups or teams
SECURITY NEEDSSeniority plans, union, health insurance,employee assistance plans, severance pay, pension
A Hierarchy Of Work Motivation
BASIC NEEDSPay
Hygiene factors in job
Organisational policiesQuality of supervisionWorking conditionsBase salary or wage Relationship with peer Relationship with subordinatesStatus Security
Motivators factors in job
AchievementRecognitionWork itselfResponsibilityAdvancementGrowth
High HighJob dissatisfaction Job satisfaction
Hezerberg’s two factor theory
ERG Theory.– Existence needs.• Desire for physiological and material well-being.– Relatedness needs.• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.– Growth needs.• Desire for continued personal growth anddevelopment.
Mc Clleland’s Theory of needs :Need for achievement (nAch).• The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.Need for affiliation (nAff).– • The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warmrelations with others.– Need for power (nPower).• The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.
ERG & MC CLLELAND THEORY
McClelland’s High Need Achiever
• Prefers moderately challenging goals
• Prefers performance feedback• Prefers individual responsibility
Work Preferences
Job Satisfaction Trends
• Internals or Externals• Individualists or Collectivists• Women or Men• Younger workers or Older workers• Less experienced or More experienced• Top management or Rank and file workers• Satisfied in prior jobs or Dissatisfied in prior jobs• Satisfied with life or Dissatisfied with life
Question “Who is more likely to be satisfied with a job?”
LOW HIGH
JOBS CAN BE REDESIGNED
Box 1 Box 3Box 2
Task VarietySkill VarietyAutonomy
JOB DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
Job Simplification Taylor
JobEnrichmentHerzberg
Job Enlargement& RotationAutomation Self-
ManagingTeams
LEADERSHIP
DEFINITION
According to Koontz and o’ Donnell “it is the art of including the subordinates to accomplish their assignments with zeal and confidence. Zeal reflects ardour, earnestness and intensity in execution of work; confidence reflects experience and technical ability.”
1. Initiates action
2. Motivation
3. Providing guidance
4. Creating confidence
5. Building morale
6. Builds work environment
7. Co-ordination
IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
Some Characteristics Of Managers Versus LeadersIn The Twenty-First Century
AdministersA copyMaintainsFocuses on systems and structuresRelies on controlShort-range viewAsks how and whenEye on the bottom lineImitatesAccepts the status quoClassic good soldierDoes things right
InnovatesAn originalDevelopsFocuses on peopleInspires trustLong-range perspectiveAsks what and whyEye on the horizonOriginatesChallenges the status quoOwn personDoes the right thing
Leader CharacteristicsManager Characteristics
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
A. TRAIT APPROACH
Keith davis has summarized four of the major traits which might have an impact on successful organizational leadership. They are:(a)Intelligence (b)Social maturity and breath (c)Inner motivation and achievement drives (d)Human relations attitude
A. BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
AutocraticParticipative or supportiveInstrumental or instrumental supportive
A. SITUATIONAL APPROACHCONTIGENCY THEORYTHE PATH-GOAL THEORY
THE PATH-GOAL THEORY:
Path-goal theory identifies four kinds of leader behavior.
Directive leader behavior - letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
Supportive leader behavior - being friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinate welfare, and treating members as equals.
Participative leader behavior - consulting subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.
Achievement-oriented behavior - setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates and showing confidence in subordinates' abilities.
Path-Goal Situations & Preferred Leader Behavior
LEADERSHIP STYLES
Leadership styles refer to a leader’s behaviour.
A paternalistic leader takes care of his followers in the way the head of the family takes care of the family members
A free rein leader will leave the group entirely to itself such as a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates.
A democratic leader can win the cooperation of his group and can motivate them effectively and positively.
An Autocratic leader will not entertain any suggestions or initiative from subordinates. Under this type of leadership, one person decides for the whole group. An autocratic leader does not trust anybody.
DEMOCRATICAUTOCRATIC
LAISSEZ FAIREPATERNALISTIC
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
DEFINITION
Conflicts occur when disagreements occur in a social situation.
Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
It could also be defined as the appearance of difference i.e. difference of opinion , difference of interest.
It can be viewed as a breakdown in the standard mechanism of decision making.
ARE ALL CONFLICTS BAD ?
Conflicts can be constructive or destructive.
Constructive conflict prevents stagnation, encourages creativity, allows tension to be released.
Excessive conflict can hamper the effectiveness of a group or an organization, reduces satisfaction of group members, increases absence and turnover rates, and lowers productivity.
Conflict is constructive when it Improves the quality of decisions.Encourages creativity and innovation.Develops interest and curiosity.Provides medium through which tensions can be released.Promotes an environment of self-evaluation and change.
Views About Conflict
The Traditional View• This approach assumes that all conflicts hamper performance.• Conflicts occur due to poor communication, lack of openness
and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be open to their employees.
The Human Relations View• This approach assumes that conflicts occur naturally in all
groups and organizations.• It is natural and cannot be avoided, hence it should be accepted.• It cannot be removed and it may play a role in group
performance.
56Conflict Management
Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict
• Functional or constructive conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.
• Conflicts that hamper group performance are dysfunctional or destructive conflicts.
• Task conflicts are related to the content and goals of the work.
• Low to medium levels of task conflict is good because it improves group performance.
Levels of Conflict
Conflicts can be atIntrapersonal level (conflict within the
individual)Interpersonal level (individual to individual
conflict)Inter-group levelInter-organizational level
Types of Intrapersonal conflict
• Approach – approach conflict• Avoidance – avoidance conflict• Approach – avoidance conflict
Reasons for conflict
Diversity of GoalsCompetition for scarce resourcesOrganisational ambiguitiesIntroduction to changeNature of CommunicationDifference in work orientation
Conflict Management Approaches
1. Avoidance – In avoidance, every one shows that the conflict does not really exist and hopes that it will finish.
2. Accommodation – It involves hiding the differences between the conflicting parties and showing areas of agreement.
3. Compromise – It occurs when each party gives up something for the sake of the other. No party is fully satisfied.
4. Competition – It is a victory achieved due to force, superior skill, or domination of one party. It is a win-lose situation.
5. Collaboration – It involves appreciation by all conflicting parties that something is wrong and needs attention.
ZOHARI WINDOW
• Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (the word “Johari” comes from Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham).
• The Johari Window is a communication model that can be used to improve understanding between individuals.
• Individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing information about themselves.
• They can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal issues with the help of feedback from others.
GROUP DYNAMICS AND UNDERSTANDING GROUP BEHAVIOUR
Definition & Characteristics
Group means there are1. Two or more
individuals 2. Interacting &
interdependent3. Come together to
achieve particular objectives.
Characteristics of Group
Shared values and NormsInterdependenceInteractionActivitiesConformity
Theories of group formation
• PROPINQUITY THEORY • EXCHANGE THEORY• BALANCE THEORY
Types of work teams
Problem solving Self managed work teamsCross functional teams Virtual teams
ORGANISATIONAL POWER AND POLITICS
A. Describe a situation where you saw evidence of power or influence being used in an organization
B. Describe a time when someone influenced you to act a particular way or do a particular thing that you would not of otherwise done.
Points to ponder
The Meaning of Power
Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
The potential to influence others
People have power they don’t use and may not know they possess
Power requires one person’s perception of dependence on another person
Why does having power matter?
With power you can…
• Intercede favorably on behalf of someone in trouble• Get a desirable placement for a talented subordinate• Get approval for expenditures beyond the budget• Get items on and off agendas• Get fast access to decision makers• Maintain regular, frequent contact with decision
makers• Acquire early information about decisions and policy
shifts
Types of Individual Power: A Summary
Position Power
• Legitimate power• Reward power• Coercive power
Individual Power
Personal Power• Referent power• Expert power
Information and Power
• Control over information flow– Based on legitimate power– Relates to formal communication network– Common in centralized structures (wheel pattern)
• Coping with uncertainty – Those who know how to cope with organizational
uncertainties gain power• Prevention• Forecasting• Absorption
Commitment
Consequences of Power
RewardPower
Legitimate Power
CoercivePower
ExpertPower
ReferentPower
Resistance
Compliance
Sources of Power
Consequences of Power
Organizational Politics
• Attempts to influence others using discretionary behaviours to promote personal objectives– Discretionary behaviours — neither explicitly
prescribed nor prohibited
• Politics may be good or bad for the organization
Organizational Politics: More Likely at the Top
Exte
nt to
Whi
ch P
oliti
cal A
ctivi
ty is
Lik
ely
(ran
ge 0
-3)
Production andblue collar
Clerical andwhite collar
Technical andprofessional
Lowermanagement
Middlemanagement
Uppermanagement
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
Organizational Level
(.18)
(.50)(.54)
(.73)
(1.07)
(1.22)Political activityis perceived to
increase at higherorganizational levels
ConditionsSupporting
Organizational Politics
ScarceResources
Complex andAmbiguousDecisions
PersonalCharacteristics
Tolerance ofPolitics
Conditions for Organizational Politics
Perception
What do you think it is ?
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Perception
“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process through which we interpret and organize sensory information to produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.”
“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.
“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
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Receiving Stimuli(External & Internal)
Selecting StimuliExternal factors : Nature,
Location,Size,contrast,Movement,repetition,similarityInternal factors : Learning,
needs,age,Interest,
Organizing Figure Background ,Perceptual Grouping( similarity, proximity,closure, continuity)
ResponseCovert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,Feeling
Overt: Behavior
Perceptual Process
Interpreting Attribution ,Stereotyping,
Halo Effect, Projection
Organizational Behavior / Perception 84
Factors influencing PerceptionFactors in the perceiver• Attitudes• Motives• Interests• Experience• Expectations
Perception
Factors in the Target• Size• Background• Proximity• Similarity
Factors in the situation• Time• Work Setting• Social Setting