ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION C H A P T E R F I V E. Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics, 14/e...

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ORTHOGRAPHICORTHOGRAPHICPROJECTIONPROJECTION

C H A P T E R F I V E

Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics, 14/eGiesecke, Hill, Spencer, Dygdon, Novak, Lockhart, Goodman

OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES1. Recognize and sketch the symbol for third-angle projection.

2. List the six principal views of projection.

3. Sketch the top, front, and right-side views of an object with normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces.

4. Understand which views show depth in a drawing showing top, front, and right-side views.

5. Know the meaning of normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces.

6. Compare using a 2D CAD program with sketching on a sheet of paper.

7. List the dimensions that transfer between top, front, and right-side views.

8. Transfer depth between the top and right-side views.

9. Label points where surfaces intersect.

UNDERSTANDING PROJECTIONSUNDERSTANDING PROJECTIONSTo make and interpret drawings you need to know how to createprojections and understand the standard arrangement of views.

You also need to be familiar with the geometry of solid objects and be able to visualize a 3D object that is represented in a 2D sketch or drawing.

VIEWS OF OBJECTSVIEWS OF OBJECTS

The system of views is called multiview projection. Each view provides certain definite information. For example, a front view shows the true shape and size of surfaces that are parallel to the front of the object.

MULTIVIEW PROJECTIONMULTIVIEW PROJECTIONThe system of views is called multiview projection. Each view provides certain definite information.

THE SIX STANDARD VIEWSTHE SIX STANDARD VIEWSAny object can be viewed from six mutually perpendicular directions,

REVOLVING THE OBJECT TO REVOLVING THE OBJECT TO PRODUCE VIEWSPRODUCE VIEWS

Revolving the Object to Produce Views. You can experience different views by revolving an object.

PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONSPRINCIPAL DIMENSIONSThe three principal dimensions of an object are width, height, and depth.

The front view shows only the height and width of the object and not the depth. In fact, any principal view of a 3D object shows only two of the threeprincipal dimensions; the third is foundin an adjacent view. Height is shown inthe rear, left-side, front, and right-sideviews. Width is shown in the rear, top,front, and bottom views. Depth isshown in the left-side, top, right-side,and bottom views.

PROJECTION METHODPROJECTION METHOD

Projection of an Object

The outline on the plane of projection shows how the object appears to the observer. In orthographic projection, rays (or projectors) from all points on the edges or contours of the object extend parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The word orthographic means “at right angles.”

HORIZONTAL AND PROFILE HORIZONTAL AND PROFILE PROJECTION PLANESPROJECTION PLANES

Specific names are given to the planes of projection. The front view is projected to the frontal plane. The top view is projected to the horizontal plane. The side view is projected to the profile plane.

THE GLASS BOXTHE GLASS BOXOne way to understand the standard arrangement of views on the sheet of paper is to envision a glass box.

If planes of projection were placed parallel to each principal face of the object, they would form a box.

UNFOLDING THE GLASS BOXUNFOLDING THE GLASS BOX

To organize the views of a 3D object on a flat sheet of paper, imagine the six planes of the glass box being unfolded to lie flat.

Note the six standard views (front, rear, top, bottom, right side, left side).

THE GLASS BOX UNFOLDEDTHE GLASS BOX UNFOLDEDLines extend around the glass box from one view to another on the planes of projection. These are the projectors from a point in one view to the same point in another view.

THE ORTHOGRAPHIC THE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONPROJECTION

The front, top, and right-side views of the object shown now without the folding lines.

TRANSFERRING DEPTH TRANSFERRING DEPTH DIMENSIONSDIMENSIONS

You can transfer dimensions between the top and side views either with dividers or with a scale.

The depth dimensions in the top and side views must correspond point-for-point. When using CAD or instruments, transfer these distances accurately.

You may find it convenient to use a 45° miter line to project dimensions between top and side views.

NECESSARY VIEWSNECESSARY VIEWS

The top, front, and right-side views, arranged together, are called the three regular views because they are the views most frequently used.

A sketch or drawing should contain only the views needed to clearly and completely describe the object.

TWO VIEWSTWO VIEWSMany objects need only two views to clearly describe their shape. If an object requires only two views, and the left-side and right-side views show the object equally well, use the right-side view.

ONE-VIEWONE-VIEWOften, a single view supplemented by a note or by lettered symbols isEnough.

CHOICE OF FRONT VIEWCHOICE OF FRONT VIEW

The view chosen for the front view in this case is the side, not the front, of the automobile.

THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTIONTHIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION

To understand the two systems, think of the vertical and horizontal planes of projection, as indefinite in extent and intersecting at 90° with each other; thefour angles produced are called the first, second, third, and fourth angles (similar to naming quadrants on a graph.) If theobject to be drawn is placed below the horizontal plane and behind the vertical plane, as in the glass box you saw earlier, the object is said to be in the third angle. In third-angle projection, the views are produced as if the observer is outside, looking in.

POSITION OF THE SIDE VIEWPOSITION OF THE SIDE VIEWSometimes, drawing three views using the conventional arrangement wastes space.

FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTIONFIRST-ANGLE PROJECTIONIf the object is placed above the horizontal plane and in front of the vertical plane, the object is in the first angle.

The biggest difference between third-angle projection and first-angle projection is how the planes of the glass box are unfolded.

HIDDEN LINESHIDDEN LINESThick, dark lines represent features of the object that are directly visible. Dashed lines represent features that would be hidden behind other surfaces.

CENTERLINESCENTERLINESThe centerline pattern is used to:

• show the axis of symmetry for a feature or part• indicate a path of motion• show the location for bolt circles and other circular patterns

The centerline pattern is composed of three dashes: one long dash on each end with a short dash in the middle.

PRECEDENCE OF LINESPRECEDENCE OF LINES

A visible line always takes precedence over and covers up a centerline or a hidden line when they coincide in a view (A and B).

A hidden line takes precedence over a centerline (C).

CENTERLINES CONTINUED…CENTERLINES CONTINUED…Centerlines (symbol: ) are used to indicate symmetrical axes of objects or features, bolt circles, and paths of motion.

VIEWS OF SURFACESVIEWS OF SURFACESThere are terms used for describing a surface’s orientation to the plane of projection. The three orientations that a plane surface can have to the plane of projection are normal, inclined, and oblique.

Note how a plane surface that is perpendicular to a plane of projectionappears on edge as a straight line

ANGLESANGLESIf an angle is in a normal plane (a plane parallel to a plane of projection) it will show true size on the plane of projection to which it is parallel.

SIMILAR SHAPES OF SURFACESSIMILAR SHAPES OF SURFACESIf a flat surface is viewed from several different positions, each view will show the same number of sides and a similar shape. This consistency of shapes is useful in analyzing views.

INTERPRETING VIEWSINTERPRETING VIEWSOne method of interpreting sketches is to reverse the mental process used in projecting them.

MODELSMODELSOne of the best aids to visualization is an actual model of the object. Models don’t necessarily need to be made accurately or to scale. They may be made of any convenient material, such as modeling clay, soap, wood, wire, or Styrofoam, or any material that can easily be shaped, carved, or cut.

Try making a soap or clay model from projected views:

C H A P T E R S I X2D DRAWING2D DRAWING

REPRESENTATIONREPRESENTATION

OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

1. Represent curved surfaces in multiview drawings

2. Show intersections and tangencies of curved and planar surfaces

3. Represent common types of holes

4. Show fillets, rounds, and runouts in a 2D drawing

5. Use partial views

6. Apply revolution conventions when necessary for clarity

7. Draw removed views and projected views

8. Show right- and left-hand parts

9. Project curved surfaces by points

10. Show and label an enlarged detail

11. Show conventional breaks

COMMON COMMON MANUFACTURED MANUFACTURED

FEATURESFEATURES

• Fillet

• Round

• Counterbore

• Countersink

• Spotface

• Boss

• Lug

• Flange

• Chamfer

• Neck

• Keyway/Keyseat

• Knurl

• Bushing

CONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATIONSREPRESENTATIONS

Standard orthographic projections don’t always show complex shapes as clearly and simply as you may wish, so certain alternative practices, referred to as conventions, are accepted.

Conventions are like rules for breaking the rules. Note how these views are projected

Orthographic Views of Intersecting and Tangent Surfaces. (Lockhart, Shawna D.; Johnson, Cindy M., Engineering Design Communication: Conveying DesignThrough Graphics, 1st, © 2000. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.)

VISUALIZING AND DRAWING VISUALIZING AND DRAWING COMPLEX CYLINDRICAL SHAPESCOMPLEX CYLINDRICAL SHAPES

CYLINDERS WHEN SLICEDCYLINDERS WHEN SLICEDCylinders are often machined to form plane or other types of surfaces.

Normal surfaces appear true shape in the view where the line of sight is perpendicular to the surface. In the two other views that normal surface appears on edge. The back half remains unchanged.

CYLINDERS AND ELLIPSESCYLINDERS AND ELLIPSESIf a cylinder is cut by an inclined plane, the inclined surface is bounded by an ellipse. This ellipse will appear as a circle in the top view, as a straight line in the front view, and as an ellipse in the side view.

When a circular shape is shown inclined in another view and projected into the adjacent view it will appear as an ellipse, even though the shape is a circle.

INTERSECTIONS AND INTERSECTIONS AND TANGENCIESTANGENCIES

Where a curved surface is tangent to a plane surface no line is drawn, but when it intersects a plane surface, a definite edge is formed.

When plane surfaces join a contoured surface, a line is shown if they are tangent, but not shown if they intersect.

INTERSECTIONS OF CYLINDERSINTERSECTIONS OF CYLINDERS

When the intersection is small, its curved shape is not plotted accurately because it adds little to the sketch or drawing for the time it takes. Instead it is shown as astraight line.

When the intersection is larger, it can be approximated by drawing an arc with the radius the same as that of the large cylinder.

FILLETS AND ROUNDSFILLETS AND ROUNDSA rounded interior corner is called a fillet. A rounded exterior corner is called a round.

(Courtesy of Ross Traeholt.)(Courtesy of Douglas Wintin.)

Rounds on a CAD Model of a Design for a Three-Hole PunchFillets on a CAD Model.

RUNOUTSRUNOUTSSmall curves called runouts are used to represent fillets that connect with plane surfaces tangent to cylinders.

Runouts from different filleted intersections will appear different owing to the shapes of the horizontal intersectingmembers.

CONVENTIONAL EDGESCONVENTIONAL EDGESThere is a conventional way of showing rounded and filleted edges for the sake of clarity. Added lines depicting rounded and filleted edges.

Rounded and filleted intersections eliminate sharp edges and can make it difficult to present the shape clearly.

NECESSARY VIEWSNECESSARY VIEWS

One-View Drawing

Two-View Drawing

Three-View Drawing

What are the absolute minimum viewsrequired to completely define an object?

PARTIAL VIEWSPARTIAL VIEWSA view may not need to be complete but needs to show what is necessary to clearly describe the object. This is called a partial view and is used to save sketchingtime and make the drawing less confusing to read.

You can use a break line to limit the partial view…

SHOWING ENLARGED DETAILSSHOWING ENLARGED DETAILS

When adding a detail, draw a circlearound the features that will be included in the detail

Place the detail view on the sheet as you would a removed view. Label successive details with the word DETAIL followed by a letter, as in DETAILA, DETAIL B,

CONVENTIONAL BREAKSCONVENTIONAL BREAKSTo shorten the view of a long object, you can use break lines…

Using a break to leave out a portion of the part, but allows the scale for the endsto be increased to show the details clearly.

ALIGNMENT OF VIEWSALIGNMENT OF VIEWSAlways draw views in the “standard” arrangement...

Because CAD makes it easy to move whole views, it istempting to place views where they fit on the screen orplotted sheet and not in the standard arrangement. This is not acceptable.

3D CAD software that generates 2D drawing views asprojections of the 3D object usually has a setting to select from third-angle or first-angle projection. Check your software if you are unsure which projection methods are available.

REMOVED VIEWSREMOVED VIEWSA removed view is a complete or partial view removed to another place on the sheet so that it is no longer in direct projection with any other view.

Removed View Using Viewing-Plane Line

Removed View Using View Indicator Arrow

RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND PARTSPARTS

Often, parts function in pairs of similar opposite parts, but oppositeparts can rarely be exactly alike.

On sketches and drawings a left-hand part is noted as LH, and a right-hand part as RH.

REVOLUTION CONVENTIONSREVOLUTION CONVENTIONSRegular multiview projections are sometimes awkward, confusing, or actually misleading.

Revolutions like these are frequently used in connection with sectioning. Revolved sectional views are called aligned sections.

COMMON FEATURES SHOWN IN COMMON FEATURES SHOWN IN ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWSORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

COMMON FEATURES SHOWN IN COMMON FEATURES SHOWN IN ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

CONTINUED…CONTINUED…

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION C H A P T E R F I V E. Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics, 14/e...

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