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Politics and GovernanceParties and Interest Groups
Political PartiesPolitical parties lie at the heart of democratic government, playing several
critical roles in the way that national political systems are ordered.
They represent the views and interests of voters and party members.
They recruit and provide a training ground for political leaders, who in turn
become the personalities that drive politics and put a human face on
government.
They offer voters competing sets of public policy options.
They help articulate and aggregate the collective goals of different
interests in society.
They mobilize and engage voters in the political process.
They provide the labels by which the philosophies of candidates for office
can be better understood.
They form governments and oppositions.
European Political GroupsParty activity at the European level has been rather different in character from
that at the national level.
When the Common Assembly of the ECSC first met in Strasbourg in 1953,
its members were arranged in alphabetical order by name, but they were
also members of national parliaments and political parties, and they
naturally gravitated towards like-minded peers from other countries.
Within months the Assembly had changed its own rules of procedure to
allow for the formation of cross-national political groups, for each of
which at least nine members were needed. The tradition of MEPs sitting
not in national blocs, as some might expect, but in ideological groups has
continued since.
Political groups: Groups formed within the European Parliament that bring
together MEPs from like-minded political parties from the different member
states.
European Political Groups Although these groups are not formally political parties, they are not
much different in terms of goals and structures: they consist of
MEPs with common ideologies and policy preferences.
One key difference between EP political groups and national
political parties is that the groups do not campaign together across
member states; EP elections are fought in 27 separate national
contests by national parties that then form groups during the term of
the EP.
Another difference is that while parties in the member states form
governments, and are intimately linked to executives, groups in the
EP do not. Except for the EP’s role in confirming and monitoring the
Commission, there are few formal political links between the two
institutions.
European Political Groups
In order for parties in the EP to form a political group, they must
have at least 25 members from at least one quarter of member
states.
The number and membership of political groups has changed
often, many being no more than short-term marriages of
convenience.
No group has ever controlled a majority of seats in the EP.
The greatest consistency has been in the mainstream left, centre
right, and right of the political spectrum, where (respectively) the
socialists, the liberals and moderate conservatives have
consistently controlled the most seats.
European Political GroupsEuropean United Left-Nordic Green Left
It traces its origins to a Communist Group formed in 1973.
This broke up after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989;
with Italian and Spanish communists forming the European United Left (GUE)
while French, Greek, and Portuguese communists formed Left Unity.
GUE fell apart in 1993, was resurrected in 1994, and in 1995 teamed up with the
Nordic Green Left, consisting of newly-arrived leftist MEPs from Finland and
Sweden.
After the 2009 elections the group had 35 members from 13 EU states.
The group is critical of the elitist qualities of the EU, campaigns for more
direct democracy and enforcement of human rights, and opposes the
‘radically market-oriented logic’ of European economic policy.
European Political GroupsProgressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (PASD)
It traces its origins to to the Rainbow Group formed in 1984 as a
coalition of green parties (then making their first early mark on
national politics in western Europe), regional parties, and left-wing
parties unaffiliated with other political groups.
Green politics: A political philosophy based on ecological wisdom,
sustainability, social justice, grassroots democracy, and non-violence.
In 1989 the greens formed their own Green Group, which in 1999
entered into its current alliance with the European Free Alliance.
After the 2009 elections the group had 55 members from 14 EU
states, the biggest national blocs coming from Germany and
France.
European Political GroupsThe Greens-European Free Alliance (Greens-EFA)
It traces its origins to to the creation in the ECSC Common Assembly of the Socialist
Group.
At the first direct elections in 1979 it won a plurality of seats (113 to the 107 won by
the European People’s Party (EPP)), picking up even bigger shares in the next
three elections.
A Confederation of Socialist Parties of the European Community had been created
in 1973, and when in 1992 it renamed itself the Party of European Socialists, the
EP political group followed suit by renaming itself the Group of the Party of
European Socialists (PES). It became the Socialist Group in2004, and in 2009
became the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (PASD).
After the 2009 elections it had members from every EU member state.
It contains many shades of opinion ranging from former communists on the left to
more moderate social democrats towards the centre, but along with the EPP is the
most firmly pro-European of the political groups in the EP.
European Political GroupsAlliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE)
It began life as the Liberal Group in the ECSC Common Assembly,
changing both its name and its positions during the 1970s and
1980s as parties from new member states joined its ranks.
Its current name was agreed after the 2004 EP elections, and
reflects its association with two Europarties:
the European Liberal Democratic and Reform Party,
the European Democratic Party.
Following the 2009 elections the group had 84 members from
19 EU member states, the biggest national blocs coming from
Germany and the UK.
European Political GroupsEuropean People’s Party (EPP)
It traces its origins to the formation in the ECSC Common Assembly in 1953 of
the Christian Democrat Group.
Christian Democracy: A political philosophy associated mainly with
continental western Europe that applies Christian principles to public policy;
moderately conservative on social and moral issues, and progressive on
economic issues.
The EPP might have been a natural fit for British and Danish conservatives,
but their euroscepticism kept them functioning separately as the European
Democrats (ED) until 1992, when they joined forces with the EPP.
The new coalition contested the 1999 EP elections as the EPP–ED, and
benefited from growing anti-European and anti-immigrant sentiment in
several EU states to overtake the socialists and win a plurality ofseats in
the EP for the first time.
European Political GroupsEuropean Conservatives
European conservatives – further to the right than the EPP, and more eurosceptic – have not
had a stable history in the EP, but have been part of its group network since the early 1970s,
working along two main strands.
One traces its origins to the 1965 formation of the European Democratic Union, which
became the European Democratic Alliance after the 1979 elections, and in 1999 became
the anti-Maastricht Union for Europe of the Nations (UEN).
The second revolves around the British Conservative party and its internal divisions over
Europe. They were at the core of the European Democrats (ED), which formed a coalition
with the EPP, in spite of differences over the direction of European integration.
The UEN was wound up after the 2009 elections, and British conservatives joined up with
Polish conservatives to form the new European Conservatives and Reformists Group,
whose policies included ‘opposition to EU federalism and a renewed respect for true
subsidiarity’ as well as ‘controlled immigration and an end to abuse of asylum procedures’.
It had 54 members from 8 member states, more than half of them from Britain and Poland.
European Political GroupsEurosceptics
Political groups on this side of the EP have been the most unstable of all,
repeatedly changing their name and structure, and united mainly by their
hostility to the EU.
They date back to the 1994 formation of the Europe of Nations group.
This evolved in 1999 into Europe of Democracies and Diversities, which
was reconstituted after the 2004 elections as the
Independence/Democracy (Ind/Dem) group.
In 2009, Ind/Dem was reformed as Europe of Freedom and Democracy
(EFD), with 32 members from nine member states.
At the heart of the new group were 13 MEPs from the United Kingdom
Independence Party (UKIP), which supports Britain’s withdrawal from
the EU.
European Political GroupsNationalist
Suffering similar levels of instability to the eurosceptics, the nationalists
in the EP trace their origins back to the formation in 1984 of the
European Right, consisting mainly of French and Italian right-wingers,
notably the far-right, French politician Jean-Marie Le Pen.
They date back to the 1994 formation of the Europe of Nations group.
It was disbanded in 1994, and was briefly reformed in January 2007
as Identity, Tradition and Sovereignty (ITS) when the accession of
Bulgaria and Romania gave it enough MEPs to apply for group
status. The group lasted less than a year before infighting tore it
apart.
Its members spoke of the need to defend ‘Christian values, the family
and European civilization’,
European Political GroupsNon-attached members
The EP has always had a small cluster of non-attached
members, who have either been elected as members of
parties that have not been able to reach agreement to join
a political group, or who have deliberately chosen to remain
outside the group structure.
Europarties Europarties are pan-European party organizations or confederations that
coordinate policy and build links among national political parties in Europe.
They are still evolving and have yet to run EU-wide campaigns for EP
elections, but they have become more adept at coordinating policy and
building links at national and European levels.
Interest Groups Interest groups are organizations that represent and
promote the political, economic or social interests of their
members, which may be individuals, cultural or social
groups, professions or industries.
Counting only Eurogroups (those organized to work at
the European level), there were estimated to be about
500 in 1985, rising to 700 in 1996, and to 851 in 2006.
Overall, the number of groups with offices in Brussels
now runs well into the thousands, the majority
representing business interests, while the balance
represent mainly public interests and the professions.
Interest GroupsInterest groups have benefited from two structural problems
within the EU decision-making system.
First there has been the relative weakness of party activity
in the EP, which has helped lift the political profile of
interest group.
Second, the small size of the European Commission has
worked to the benefit of interest groups by allowing them to
fill a structural need.
The working parties and committees of the Council of
Ministers, and the committees of the European Parliament
are also attracting the attention of interest groups
Interest GroupsBusiness and labour groups have long been the most
active at the EU level, but the number of special interest
groups and Brussels-based think tanks has grown.
Think tank: An organization that conducts research into a
given area of policy with the goal of fostering public debate
and political change.
Some examples are; The Centre for European Policy
Studies (CEPS), The European Policy Centre, The
European Enterprise Institute, The European Trade
Union Institute, The International Crisis Group.
Interest GroupsInterest groups are a critical part of a healthy civil society,
or the arena that exists outside the state or the marketplace
and within which individuals take collective action on
shared interests.
They will usually organize themselves into non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) in the form of
charities, community groups, professional associations,
cultural groups, and trade unions, and take action outside
government to deal with problems or provide services that
have not been addressed by government.
Interest GroupsOne of the core functions of most interest groups is
lobbying, or attempts to influence the decision-making
process. This has long been part of political life at the
national level in liberal democracies, although it is less
developed in Europe than in the United States, and its
political role is quite different.
Lobbying is a growth industry in Brussels, although the
opportunities have so far been fewer than those available
at the national level, and the rules looser.
Interest Groups
Business and labour groups have long been the most
active at the EU level, but the number of special interest
groups and Brussels-based think tanks has grown.
Lobbying is a growth industry in Brussels, although the
opportunities have so far been fewer than those
available at the national level, and the rules looser.
Politics and GovernanceElections and Referendums
European Elections Direct elections to the EP have been held every five years since 1979
(in years ending with a four or a nine), but they have yet to earn a firm
place in the European political consciousness.
Theoretically, they should have been widely welcomed, because they
give European voters a direct link with the work of the EU and help
address concerns about the EU’s “democratic deficit”
The EP is the only EU institution directly elected by voters, has won
growing powers over the EU policy process, and should logically have
attracted the interest and input of EU voters.
But turnout at EP elections has been falling, and neither the EP nor
the parties that contest its elections have been able to make the
necessary psychological connection with voters on European issues.
European Elections There were about 375 million eligible voters in 2009,
making the EP elections the second largest democratic
elections in the world after those held in India.
Voters must be 18 years of age, must be citizens of one
of the EU member states, and can vote in whichever EU
member state they are legally resident.
Member states have different rules on the minimum age
for candidates, ranging from 18 in Germany, Spain,
Sweden and several other countries to 23 in France and
25 in Italy and Cyprus.
European Elections For EP elections – and, in most cases, for national elections –
every EU member state uses variations on the theme of
proportional representation (PR).
This contrasts with the single-member plurality (SMP) system
used in national elections in Britain, Canada, and the United
States, where each legislative district is contested by multiple
candidates and the winner is the candidate who wins the most
votes (a plurality).
Politics in national legislatures and in the European Parliament
have come to be coloured by two main characteristics:
coalition governments made up of two or more political parties,
the representation of a wide range of political opinion
European ElectionsThere has been a long debate about the efficiency and efficacy of
European elections in providing voters with real choices and
providing the EU institutions with legitimacy.
One issue of concern in EP elections has been declining voter
turnout, the number falling from a respectable 63 per cent in
1979 to a disappointing 43 percent in 2009
There are several explanations for these trends, perhaps the
most compelling of which is the difference between first-order
and second-order elections.
The former have higher stakes (such as a change of
government) than the latter. EP elections are considered
second-order.
European ElectionsFirst-order elections have higher stakes such as national elections determine who
controls national executives and legislatures,
they have the most immediate impact on the lives of voters,
they also attract the most media attention,
they are more hard fought, and voters find it easier to engage with the issues
(because they are more immediate),
hence are more likely to turn out on election day.
Second-order elections, such as by-elections and local government elections, have
lower stakes and attract less voter interest.
EP elections are more clearly second-order:
there is no change of government at stake,
voters find it more difficult to engage with European issues than with national
issues,
the result is that they are less inclined to turn out.
European ElectionsLow turnout is also related to several other factors:
the fuzzy shape of the EP on the European political
radar
few well-known figures in the European Parliament
no Europe-wide political parties running in EP elections
most voters still see EP elections very much in national
terms
falling turnout is also related to trends in national
elections
European ElectionsThere has been much conjecture that declining voter turnout in Europe may
be a function of a switch to alternative or less ‘conventional’ forms of political
participation. Europeans, like the residents of all democratic societies, also
have the following options:
Running for public office.
Organizing or taking part in public demonstrations. Signing a petition.
Contacting elected officials.
Volunteering for a local community organization.
Attending political rallies and speeches.
Setting up a web site or a blog.
Civil disobedience or passive resistance.
Citizen initiative (An option introduced by Lisbon that allows a petition
(signed by at least a million people) to be submitted to the Commission.)
National ReferendumsReferendum: A form of direct democracy (otherwise known as a
plebiscite, a ballot question, or a proposition) in which the affected
electorate is asked to vote on whether or not to accept a specific
proposal.
At few times is voter attention drawn more actively to European
issues than when one of the member states organizes a referendum.
They have occasionally resulted in dramatic changes of political
direction, and the EU’s democratic deficit is rarely more apparent
than when national governments refuse to put major European
questions to a public test.
The pressures to hold referendums on European issues have been
growing, as a result of which Europe has become the single most
voted-on issue in the world.
National Referendums The subject of most referendums has been either membership
of the EEC/EU or the euro, or approval of a new treaty.
Denmark and Ireland have had the most referendums on
European issues, and only seven EU member states have had
none.
A distinction must be made between referendums that are
mandatory or facultative (initiated by public or political
demand), and between those that are binding and non-binding.
The outcome of EP elections and national referendums is often
influenced by the standing of governing and opposition parties
in member states.