Principles of Behavior Analysis

What is Positive Behavioral Programming (PBS)? PBS is a gradual process of behavior change.

It involves a de-emphasis on aversive strategies and an emphasis on systematic instruction in more effective ways of behaving. Positive programming teaches new behavior over time and is based on a full functional analysis of problem behaviors (LeVigna and Donnellan, 1986)

Traditional Behavior Management versusPositive Behavioral Support (PBS)

Traditional– narrowly focused on defining behavior(s) and

applying consequences AFTER behavior occurs. PBS

– expanded focus, including• prevention• role of context in behavior• attending to the meaning/function of behavior• developing skills, especially communication

Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis (Kerr and Nelson, 2006) Principle 1: Behavior is controlled, or maintained by its

consequences Principle 2: Behavior is strengthened by reinforcement Principle 3: Behavior is weakened by withholding the

consequences that have maintained it Principle 4: Behavior is weakened by punishment Principle 5: To effectively influence behavior, consequences

must be consistently and immediately delivered following the behavior

Principle 6: Behavior is also strengthened, weakened, or maintained via modeling

Behavior Analysis: Beliefs About Behavior Behavior is related to and governed by its context. Behavior can be interpreted as functional (often

communicative), purposeful and meaningful to the individual.

Though Behaviorists target observable and measurable behaviors, they acknowledge that behavior is influenced by internal events (e.g. physiological conditions or emotional states) and factors outside the immediate context including relationships, activity patterns, and lifestyle issues - often called “setting events”

The Communicative Value of Behavior Behavior is often used to communicate wants,

needs, or feelings that can not be expressed through verbal means (especially with non-verbal children).– If a child is not being heard, her behavior is the

easiest way for her to get noticed– Examine the messages of behavior– For non-verbal children, an alternative

communication system should be developed

The Behavioral Perspective (Cont.)

Behavioral interventions operate independent of an individual’s diagnosis.– Therefore, it’s less productive to look for behavioral

interventions which are disability-specific. Instead organize interventions based on understanding the individual and the environment.

Behavioral Science emphasizes Empiricism, Replication, and Parsimony

Behavior Analysis Asks the Question:

Why is this childengaging in this behavior,in this setting,at this time?

The A-B-C’s of Behavior (Three Term Contingency)

Antecedent (Stimulus)– an event, action, or circumstance that occurs

before a behavior. Behavior (Response)

– any observable and measurable act of an individual Consequence (Stimulus)

– any action or response which follows a behavior

Stimulus Change Environmental changes (presentation or

occurrence of a stimulus) that influence behavior (the response)– The Environment is NOT a static entity…stimulus

changes are occurring dynamically– Stimulus change occurs before (Antecedent) and after

the response (Consequence)– Stimulus change can have both immediate (but

temporary), and delayed (but relatively permanent) effects on behavior

Behavioral Contrasts and Stimulus Change

Contrast refers to a relative change in experience as a result of the behavior (and subsequent consequence).

Behavioral Learning often occurs through contrasts.– High contrast = low repetition learning– Low contrast = high repetition learning

Contrasts are most distinct when there are marked differences between the consequences for appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

Most Unpleasant Neutral Most Pleasant

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Behavioral Contrasts

Antecedents:Discriminative Stimulus

– A discriminative stimulus is an antecedent event that signals the behavior will be reinforced or punished. It increases the likelihood of a response (or non-response) occurring.

SD: stimulus that when present, evokes behavior because in the past, the behavior has been reinforced (positively or negatively) in its presence.

SDELTA: a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been extinguished (or contacted a leaner schedule of reinforcement) in its presence.

SP: a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been punished (positively or negatively) in its presence.

Antecedents:Stimulus Control Refers to the controlling relation between the

discriminative stimulus and the operant response (what Skinner called attention)

Stimulus control is established when a reinforcer/punisher is consistently delivered following an operant response that has been evoked by a discriminative stimulus.

The three-term contingency lies at the root of stimulus control.

Four Parameters that Impact Stimulus Control Potency of Consequence (and SD) Reliability of the SD in predicting the

consequence Immediacy of Consequence Cost of attaining the consequence

Setting Events and Establishing Operations (EO)

Setting Events and EO’s are antecedent conditions that increase the probability that challenging behavior will occur. They affect attention to the SD and the power of consequences.

Examples• Staff changes• Missed medications• Irregular sleep patterns• Illness• Missed meals• Argument/fights• Prior Learning• Cultural Norms, Values, and Customs• Skill deficits

Antecedent (SD)

Behavior Consequence

Establishing Operation (EO)

The Role of Establishing Operations

Behaviors

What the Behavior looks like, or Topography, is least important aspect of behavior analysis…we are concerned with function

Response Class: Behaviors that may vary in terms of topography (e.g., Yelling v. Spitting), but are similar in their function (e.g., Escape from task)

Repertoire: All of the behaviors that a person is capable of performing

Defining Target Behaviors

It is imperative to clearly define the behavior(s) of concern. The target behavior should be:– Observable– Measurable

• Examples of poorly defined target behaviors: rudeness, aggressiveness, spiteful, etc..

• Examples of well-defined target behaviors: punching others, cursing at parents, missing curfew, etc..

In a Nutshell…

All Behavior occurs for either of two reasons:

1. To Gain a Pleasurable Consequence2. To Avoid or Escape Painful Consequence

Consequences: Function of Problem Behavior The function of the problem behavior refers to the

“why” of a behavior. That is, why is a behavior occurring or what function does it serve.– Common Functions of Problem Behaviors

• Attention• Escape• Tangible Reward• Sensory Stimulation/Automatic Reinforcement

* A behavior can have more than one function, such is the case with concurrent contingencies (i.e., more than one contingency of reinforcement or punishment is available at the same time for the same behavior.

Reinforcement Any event that maintains or increases the future

probability of the response that it follows.– Positive Reinforcement: presentation of an desired stimulus

(e.g., giving a child a sticker for completing a task, the sticker reinforces the behavior, that is, it increases the likelihood that the child will complete tasks in the future.

– Negative Reinforcement: removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus (e.g., taking an aspirin for a headache, the aspirin removes the aversive stimulus (headache), thereby increasing the likelihood that you will take the aspirin again in the future.

Reinforcement (Cont.)

Reinforcement is a Teacher’s Ally– 1. Reinforcement increases desired behavior– 2. Reinforcement signals to your child that his

behavior is being monitored– 3. Reinforcement provides feedback to the child

concerning his behavior

Reinforcement (Cont.)

Satiation– The phenomenon where reinforcers lose their

ability to increase behavior. Typically occurs when too much reinforcement is given.

Habituation– Brain ignores a constant stimulus because it

provides no new information or results in no further consequence.

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous

– reinforcing the child each time she performs a desired behavior

Variable– providing occasional, or intermittent, reinforcement for

desired behaviors• A slot machine is a good example of a variable reinforcer. Money

only comes out occasionally, but when it does it reinforces your behavior. That is, the intermittent pay-out increases the likelihood that you will play the slot machine in the future.

Extinction

Eliminating reinforcement for a behavior that has previously been reinforced – (e.g., if it is determined that attention is the reinforcer, then it is

important to ignore the problem behavior, thereby restricting access to the reinforcer.)

– identify the reinforcer– restrict access to the reinforcer when the problem

behavior occurs– make a plan for when behavior escalates (aka,

response or extinction burst)

Replacement Behaviors or Alternative Behaviors A more “acceptable” or positive behavior that

serves the same function as the problem behavior* Behavior must not require additional effort to

perform as compared to the problem behavior Must result in an equally powerful consequence Replacement behavior should be in the child’s

repertoire, or else it should be taught to the child

* It is not always feasible nor logical to use replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the problem behavior (ex. Task avoidance behaviors). In these cases, we can teach and reinforce a behavior or skill that serves a more adaptable purpose

Punishment

An event that DECREASES the probability of a behavior occurring in the future:– the presentation of something aversive (e.g.

restriction, time-out, etc..) – the removal of something positive (e.g., taking away

a favorite game, not letting the child go to a friends house).

• NOTE: Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that punishment DECREASES a future behavior, whereas negative reinforcement, INCREASES a future behavior.

Behavior Chains

A sequence of discriminative stimuli and responses, each response in which produces a change in the environment that acts as a discriminative stimulus (or operandum) for the next response. Each stimulus within the chain reinforces the response that precedes it, and act as an SD for the response that follows it.

Shaping

Shaping: Teaching a target behavior by reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.

Generalization

Generalization is the spread of the changes in behavior engendered by a contingency to other stimulus conditions (stimulus generalization), or other responses (response generalization), that have not been exposed to that contingency. The extent of the effect is related to the similarity of the other stimulus or response class characteristics.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization (often referred to as the "rub-off effect") means the more similar two stimuli are, the more likely a person is to respond to them as if they were the same stimulus.– Same response in the presence of different

stimuli

Response Generalization

Performance of similar behaviors (Same response class) to obtain same consequence

Different response to same antecedent, with similar consequence

Positive Behavioral Programming: A Summary Positive Behavioral Programming should

Achieve the Following:– Prevention and Elimination– Teach & reinforce alternative skills and

behaviors– Identify the function of the behaviors– Address Establishing Operations