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CompilationoftheDifferentTheoriesinPsychology
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CarenB.Chavez
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TableofContents
Title Page
ResearchMethods 2
TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning 11
TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion 25
TheoriesofHumanDevelopment
a. FreudsPsychosexualTheory
b. EriksonsPsychosocialStageofDevelopment
c. PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment
d. KohlbergsMoralStagesofDevelopment
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ResearchMethodsinPsychology
Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic
settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of abnormal psychology,
biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental
psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. All branches of
psychology can have a research component to them. Research psychology is
contrastedwithappliedpsychology.
Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the
scientific method, encompassing both qualitative ethological and quantitative statistical
modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to
psychological phenomena. Where research ethics and the state of development in a
given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental
protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other
fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative
psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including
action research, ethnography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and
participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by
classical experimentation. Research in humanistic psychology is more typically pursued
byethnographic,historical,andhistoriographicmethods.
The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of
contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including
various wellknown standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation
orexperimentrequires.
Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory,
aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other
psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate
and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most
psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some
point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of
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psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and
experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up
as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology
tohelpothers.
When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge,
especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing
body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for
university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a
number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer
treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government
regulatorybodiesaswell.
Quantitative psychology involves the application of statistical analysis to
psychological research, and the development of novel statistical approaches for
measuring and explaining human behavior. It is a young field (only recently have Ph.D.
programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it is loosely comprised of the
subfieldspsychometricsandmathematicalpsychology.
Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique
of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities,
attitudes, interests, achievement in particular degree or course, and personality traits
(Carl Dellomos, 2009). Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and
much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed
in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Psychometric research
typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments
and procedures for measurement and (ii) the development and refinement of
theoreticalapproachestomeasurement.
ResearchMethods
Naturalisticobservation
is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social
scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This
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type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is
unrealistic,costprohibitive,orwouldundulyaffectthesubject'sbehavior.
Example:
ObservingTeensinamallduringfilmshowingasaschoolactivity.
ObservingKidsatplayinaparkincomparisontoagamezone.
Casestudy
a specific reallife situation or imagined scenario, used as a training tool in
business schools and firms. Students or trainees are required to analyze the prescribed
cases and present their interpretations or solutions, supported by the line of reasoning
employedandassumptionsmade.
Example:
A case study involving business transaction where employees conive in a
fraudulent transactions. What should employers set up as internal controls to avoid it
fromhappening.
Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews
List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to
extract specific information. It serves four basic purposes: to (1) collect the appropriate
data, (2) make data comparable and amenable to analysis, (3) minimize bias in
formulatingandaskingquestion,and(4)tomakequestionsengagingandvaried.
Correlationalstudies
is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other, so that when you
can see one changing, you have an idea of how the other will change. This often entails
theresearcherusingvariablesthattheycan'tcontrol.
The goal of correlational research is to find out whether one or more variables
can predict other variables. Correlational research allows us to find out what variables
may be related. However, the fact that two things are related or correlated does not
mean there is a causal relationship. It is important to make a distinction between
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correlation and causation. Two things can be correlated without there being a causal
relationship.
Example:
Decker (1987) found that a supervisor's perceived sense of humor was
positivelycorrelatedwithpeople'sjobsatisfaction.
TheExperimentalMethod
Conducting psychology experiment can be a long, complicated, and intimidating
process. It can be confusing especially when one is not quite sure where to begin or
which steps to take. Like other sciences, psychology utilizes the scientific method and
bases conclusions upon empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is
importanttofollowthefivebasicstepsofthescientificmethod:
1. Askaquestionthatcanbetested
2. Designastudyandcollectdata
3. Analyzeresultsandreachconclusions
4. Sharetheresultswiththescientificcommunity
5. Replicatetheresults
Thesefivestepsserveasageneraloutlineoftheentireprocess.
Step1:FindaResearchProblemorQuestionPicking a research problem can be one of the most challenging steps. After all,
there are so many different topics you might choose to investigate. Consider some of
thefollowing:
Investigate a commonly held belief. Folk psychology is a good source of
unanswered questions that can serve as the basis for psychological research. For
example, many people believe that staying up all night to cram for a big exam can
actually hurt test performance. A study can be conducted in which to compare the test
scores of students who stayed up all night studying, versus the scores of students who
gotafullnight'ssleeppriortotheexam.
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Review psychology literature. Published studies are a great source of
unanswered research questions. In many cases, the authors will even note the need for
further research. Find a published study that is intriguing, and then come up with some
questionsthatrequirefurtherexploration.
Think about everyday problems. There are many practical applications for
psychology research. Explore various problems that you or others face each day, and
then consider how could the research be a potential solutions. For example, you might
investigate different memorization strategies to determine which methods are most
effective.
Step2:DefineYourVariables
Variables are anything that might impact the outcome of the study. An
operational definition describes exactly what the variables are and how they are
measured within the context of the study. For example, if a study is done on the impact
of sleep deprivation on driving performance, it would need to operationally define what
ismeantbysleepdeprivationanddrivingperformance.
In this example it might define sleep deprivation as getting less than seven hours
of sleep at night and define driving performance as how well a participant does on a
driving test. What is the purpose of operationally defining variables? The main purpose
is control. By understanding what is measured, one can control it by holding the variable
constantbetweenallofthegroupsormanipulatingitasanindependentvariable.
Step3:DevelopaHypothesis
The next step is to develop a testable hypothesis that predicts how the
operationally defined variables are related. In our example in the previous step, our
hypothesis might be: "Students who are sleep deprived will perform worse than students
whoarenotsleepdeprivedonatestofdrivingperformance."
In order to determine if the results of the study are significant, it is essential to
also have a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the prediction that one variable will
have no association to the other variable. In other words, the null hypothesis assumes
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that there will be no difference in the effects of the two treatments in our experimental
andcontrolgroups.
The null hypothesis is assumed to be valid unless contradicted by the results.
The researchers can either reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative
hypothesisornotrejectthenullhypothesis.
It is important to remember that not rejecting the null hypothesis does not mean
that the researchers are accepting the null hypothesis. To say that one is accepting the
null hypothesis is to suggest that something is true simply because it did not find any
evidence against it. This represents a logical fallacy that should be avoided in scientific
research.
Step4:ConductBackgroundResearch
Once there is a developed testable hypothesis, it is important to spend some
time doing some background research. What do researchers already know about your
topic? What questions remain unanswered? One can learn about previous research on
a topic by exploring books, journal articles, online databases, newspapers, and
websitesdevotedtothesubject.
Reasonstoconductbackgroundresearch:
Reading previous research gains a better understanding of what will one
encounterduringtheexperiment.
Understanding the background of the topic provides a better basis for the
hypothesis. After conducting a thorough review of the literature, one might
choosetoaltertheirhypothesis.
Background research also allows to explain why one chose to investigate a
particularhypothesisandarticulatewhythetopicmeritsfurtherexploration.
As one research the history of its topic, it is remembered to take careful notes
and create a working bibliography of the sources. This information will be valuable when
tobeginawriteupoftheexperimentresults.
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Step5:ChooseanExperimentalDesign
After conducting background research and finalizing the hypothesis, the next
step is to develop an experimental design. There are three basic types of designs that
youmightbeutilize.Eachhasitsownstrengthsandweaknesses.
PreExperimental Designs: This type of experimental design does not include a
control group. A single group of participants is studied, and there is no
comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Examples of
preexperimental designs include case studies (one group is given a treatment
and the results are measured) and pretest or posttest studies (one group is
tested,givenatreatmentandthenretested).
QuasiExperimental Designs: This type of experimental design does include a
controlgroup,butthedesigndoesnotincluderandomization.
True Experimental Designs: A true experimental design include both of the
elements that the preexperimental designs and quasiexperimental designs lack
ontheirowncontrolgroupsandrandomassignmenttogroups.
Step6:StandardizeYourProcedures
In order to arrive at legitimate conclusions, it is essential to compare apples to
apples. Each participant in each group must receive the same treatment under the
same conditions. For example, in our hypothetical study on the effects of sleep
deprivation on driving performance, the driving test must be administered to each
participant in the same way. The driving course must be the same, the obstacles faced
mustbethesame,andthetimegivenmustbethesame.
Step7:ChooseYourParticipants
In addition to making sure that the testing conditions are standardized, it is also
essential to ensure that the pool of participants is the same. If the individuals in the
control group (those who are not sleep deprived) all happen to be amateur race car
drivers while the experimental group (those that are sleep deprived) are all people who
justrecentlyearnedtheirdriverslicenses,yourexperimentwilllackstandardization.
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When choosing subjects, there are a number of different techniques that can be
used. A simple random sample involves randomly selecting a number of participants
from a group. A stratified random sample requires randomly selecting participants from
different subsets of the population. These subsets might include characteristics such as
geographiclocation,age,sex,race,orsocioeconomicstatus.
Step8:PerformTestsandCollectData
After one have selected the participants, the next steps are to conduct the tests
and collect the data. Prior to doing any testing, however, there are a few important
concerns that needs to be addressed. First, the need to be sure that the testing
procedures are ethical. Generally, it needs to gain permission to conduct any type of
testing with human participants by submitting the details of the experiment to the
school's Institutional Review Board, sometimes referred to as the 'Human Subjects
Committee.'
After the approval from the academic institution's IRB, it needs to present
informed consent forms to each of the participants. This form offers information on the
study, the data that will be gathered, and how the results will be used. The form also
givesparticipantstheoptiontowithdrawfromthestudyatanypointintime.
Once this step has been completed, the researcher can begin administering the
testingproceduresandcollectingthedata.
Step9:AnalyzetheResults
After collecting the data, it is time to analyze the results of the experiment.
Researchers utilize statistics to determine if the results of the study support the original
hypothesis and to determine if the results are statistically significant. Statistical
significance means that the results of the study are unlikely to have occurred simply by
chance.
The types of statistical methods a researcher may use to analyze the data
depends largely on the type of data that was collected. If the researcher is using a
randomsampleofalargerpopulation,heorshewillneedtoutilizeinferentialstatistics.
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These statistical methods make inferences about how the results relate to the
population at large. Because in making inferences based upon a sample, it has to be
assumedthattherewillbeacertainmarginoferror.
Step10:WriteupandSharetheResults
The final task in conducting a psychology experiment is to communicate the
results. By sharing the experiment with the scientific community, one is contributing to
the knowledge base on that particular topic. One of the most common ways to share
research results is to publish the study in a peerreviewed professional journal. Other
methods include sharing results at conferences, in book chapters, or in academic
presentations.
In the case, it is likely that the researcher will have a formal writeup of the
experimentinthesameformatrequiredinaprofessionaljournalarticleorlabreport:
TitlePage
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
TablesandFigures
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TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning
In psychology, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in, or
acquisition of, knowledge or behavior. The key term here is relatively, because
although we tend to hold on to what we learn, it can be changed a later date. For
example, your friend teaches you how to play tennis, but later you get a qualified
instructor who modifies and improves your technique. What we learn can also be
forgotten over time, especially if we do not regularly use the skills or knowledge that we
have acquired. For example, you may learn to drive a car, but if you dont drive for
several years, you will probably forget what you had previously learned and so would
needtopracticeagain.
In addition to this, in order for us to learn something, we first need to experience
it at the level of sensation via our five senses (i.e. touch, taste, hearing, sight and smell).
As without our senses, learning would be virtually impossible. Below we look at some of
themaintheoriesoflearningthataretaughtinpsychology:
1. Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning that has been
acquired through experience. One of the best known examples of classical
conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his
experimentsondogs.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard
a bell ring. In order to do this, he first showed them food which naturally caused
themtosalivate.
Later, Pavlov would ring a bell every time he brought the food out, until
eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without
giving them any food.In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed
how a reflex (i.e. salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned
(modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex
orresponse.
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ThecomponentsofClassicalConditioningare:
Theunconditionedstimulus
Theconditionedstimulus
Theunconditionedreflex
Theconditionedreflex
In its strictest definition, classical conditioning is described as a previously
neutral stimulus which causes a reflex, where stimulus means something which
causesaphysicalresponse.
TheUnconditionedStimulus(food)
An unconditioned stimulus is anything which can evoke a response
without prior learning or conditioning. For example, when a dog eats some food it
causes the dogs mouth to salivate. Therefore, the food is an unconditioned
stimulus because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and
without the dog having to learn how to salivate. Unconditioned Stimulus causes
anautomaticreflexresponse.
ConditionedStimulus(bell)
The conditioned stimulus is created by learning, and therefore, does not
create a response without prior conditioning. For example, when Pavlov rang a
bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because the
dogs had learned to associate the bell with food. If they had not learned to
associate the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was
rung.
ConditionedStimulus
A need to learn beforehand so that the stimulus will create a response. It
isanacquiredpowertochangesomething.
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UnconditionedReflex(salivation)
An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without
you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating at the smell of food.
Unconditioned Reflex happens automatically and you didnt have to learn how to
doit.
ConditionedReflex
A conditioned reflex is a reflex that you have learned to associate with
something. For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when
previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.
Conditioned Reflex be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (i.e. a
previouslyneutralstimulus).
BehavioralPatternsofClassicalConditioning
The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs
without you having to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning.
Although later on, this learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that
experience. For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise
your hand. This flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs who
have been mistreated by their owner. The same can be found in women who are
beaten by their husbands. This latter example shows that classical conditioning is
notsolelyconfinedtoanimals,asitcanjustaseasilyoccurinhumans.
The three main behavioral patterns that are associated with classical
conditioningare:
a. Extinction
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a
number of times without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if we
ring a bell and cause a dog to salivate, then we have a conditioned
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stimulus. But if we keep ringing that bell without giving the dog any food
(unconditioned stimulus), then eventually the dog will disassociate
(unlearn) the bell from the food and so will no longer salivate. Therefore,
extinction has occurred because the bell no longer has any effect on the
dog. This process of extinction is used by psychologists to help people
overcometheirfearsorphobias.
For example, if you have a strong fear of heights, then by
constantly exposing yourself to heights you will eventually unlearn your
fear via a process known as desensitization. This can be done through
immediate exposure, whereby you go to the top of a very tall building
immediately. Or by gradual exposure, where you gradually work your way
up a tall building floor by floor. Note: Extinction is different from forgetting,
becauseextinctioninvolvesunlearningsomething.
In brief: Extinction occurs when we unlearn something, or become
desensitized to it, and the stimulus no longer creates the effect it used to
cause.
b.StimulusGeneralization
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to a
conditioned stimulus creates the conditioned reflex. For example, if we
can make a dog salivate by ringing a bell (conditioned stimulus), and we
can make the same dog salivate by ringing a slightly different sounding
bell, then what we have demonstrated is stimulus generalization. In brief:
Stimulus generalization occurs when something similar to our conditioned
stimuluscreatesthesameresponse(theconditionedreflex).
c.Discrimination
Continuing from the example above, if we were then to use another
bell which produced a different sound but this time the dog did not
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salivate, then what we have demonstrated is discrimination because the
dog no longer associates that sound with food (i.e. it has discriminated
against it). In brief: Discrimination occurs when our new stimulus is too
different from our original conditioned stimulus to cause the effect we want
(theconditionedreflex).
2. Operant conditioning is a term used to describe behavior which has been
reinforced by reward or discouraged through punishment. For example, if a
mother wants he daughter to clean her room, then she may give her some candy
everytimeshecleansit.
Given enough time, the girl will start to clean her room more often
becausesheknowsthatshewillgetsomecandyinreturnfordoingso.
As a result, the girls behavior (cleaning her room) has been modified
(conditioned) because she has learned to associate a behavior with a reward.
Although this may sound similar in principle to classical conditioning, it is in fact
different because operant conditioning requires action on the part of the learner.
As a result, the girl will not get any candy until after she has cleaned her room. In
classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (candy) is used regardless of
what the learner does. Operant behavior is defined as actions which have
consequences.
The Skinner Box was introduced by B.F. Skinner who is best known for
operant conditioning and the device he invented to research it, a device called
the operant conditioning apparatus or the Skinner Box. The Skinner box involved
placing an animal (such as a rat or pigeon) into a sealed box with a lever that
would release food when pressed. If food was released every time the rat
pressed the lever, it would press it more and more because it learned that doing
sogivesitfood.
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Lever pressing is described as an operant behavior, because it is an
action that results in a consequence. In other words, it operates on the
environment and changes it in some way. The food that is released as a result of
pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it causes the operant
behavior (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a
conditioned stimulus because it causes an effect to occur. It is important to note
though, that there is a difference between a reward and a reinforcer in operant
conditioning.
A reward is something that has value to the person giving the reward, but
may not necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward. A reinforcer
is something that benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase of
acertaintypeofbehavior.
Thereareseveralofthedifferentwaystocategorizeareinforcer.
A positive reinforcer has some sort of value to whoever is
receiving it. For example, food when you are hungry or water when you
arethirsty.Apositivereinforcerservestoincreaseanoperantbehavior
A negative reinforcer has no value to whoever receives it. It may
also injure, harm or cause discomfort in some way. For example, a very
hot room, an electric shock or a dangerous situation. A negative reinforcer
causes the recipient to try to escape from it or avoid it. For example, if a
room is very hot, then you may switch on the air conditioning or a fan to try
to escape from the heat. If this is successful, you are likely to repeat this
behavior the next time you are in a very hot room. Negative reinforcers
therefore also serve to increase operant behaviors. Note: Negative
reinforcers are not a form of punishment because they precede (i.e. come
before) an operant behavior. Punishment occurs after a behavior has
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already occurred, such as smacking a child after they have done
somethingbad.
Another way to classify reinforcers, are as a primary or secondary
reinforcer.
Primary reinforcer has some value to whoever is receiving it, and
this value has not been learned. For example, food when you are hungry
orwaterwhenyouarethirsty.
Secondary reinforcer has an acquired value to whoever receives
it. This means that you are taught its value or worth over a period of time
before you see it as being valuable to you. For example, money is a
secondary reinforcer because you have to learn the value of money and
what it does before it has any meaning to you. If you are short of cash,
then receiving money can also be categorized as a positive reinforcer
becauseithasvaluetoyou.
Extinction
Just like in classical conditioning where presenting a conditioned stimulus
a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus results in extinction, a
similar process also occurs in operant conditioning when an operant behavior
begins to declines. For example, if a rat receives no food when it presses a lever
(reinforcement is withheld), then it will gradually press that lever less and less
until eventually it stops doing so entirely. In effect, the rat gives up on pressing
the lever (stops an operant behavior) because it no longer results in it receiving
food(reinforcer).Theoperantbehaviorhasthereforebecomeextinct.
Stoppingbadhabits
This knowledge of extinction can be applied to behavior shaping,
such as when trying to stop a bad habit. So rather than trying to punish a
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certain behavior, it is usually far more effective to take away the
reinforcer(s) associated with it. By doing so, the habit will no longer be
seen as having any benefit, and so the undesirable behavior will gradually
start to fade away (extinction). Punishment may temporarily reduce a
certain behavior, although in the long run, because that behavior is still
seen as bringing some sort of benefit, it will continue. In addition to this,
punishment can also make the person being punished resent you and
thendothingsbehindyourbackoutofspite.
Partialreinforcement
Behavior that is acquired under partial reinforcement is much more
resistant to extinction than behavior which has been acquired under continuous
reinforcement. For example, if a rat receives a reinforcer every time it presses
the lever, then this would be continuous reinforcement. However, if the rat
receives a reinforcer at random, or every second or third time it presses the
lever, then this would be partial reinforcement because it does not get the
reinforcer every time. If you were to stop giving the reinforcer, the rat receiving
partial reinforcement would display a greater resistance to extinction (i.e. it would
keep pressing the lever for longer after the reinforcer had been stopped). A good
example of partial reinforcement can be seen in casinos. This is why you will
often find that despite winning a large sum of money, many gamblers are unable
tostopandenduplosingallofwhattheyhadwon.
Discriminativestimulus
In a slight variation of the original Skinner box, a light bulb was placed
above the lever. Whenever the light is on, pressing the lever would result in the
rat receiving the reinforcer. But when the light is off, pressing the lever would
result in no reinforcer. Given enough time, the rat eventually learns to only press
the lever when the light is on and ignores the lever when the light is off. Skinner
called the light a discriminative stimulus, which he defined as a stimulus which
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allows the animal to tell the difference between a situation which is reinforcing
and one that is not. In other words, the light allows you to determine whether or
not you will get a reward (reinforcer). Some real life examples of discriminative
stimuli include hearing a bell before lunch or seeing a traffic light when you are
driving. In both cases, a signal (bell or light) tells you what sort of reinforcement
youwillreceiveinthatsituation.
Putting this all together, you can now see that operant conditioning is a
modification (conditioning) of an action (operant behavior) which has
consequences (e.g. lever pressing releases food) through the use of positive
reinforcementornegativereinforcement.
3. Observational Learning occurs when a behavior is acquired by watching the
behavior of someone else. This second person is known as a model and either
intentionally or unintentionally demonstrates a behavior to you. If the observer is
able to identify with this behavior and receive some sort of satisfaction from it,
then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined
gratification). For example, if your favorite sports team wins a game, then you
receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory. You have
received vicarious reinforcement, which may then motivate you to play that sport.
Vicarious reinforcement can occur in virtually any circumstance in which you, as
the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behavior of
anotherperson(themodel).
Social Learning Theory is an expansion of observational learning, and
deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment. A good
example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow
various celebrity role models. If the teen receives some sort of gratification
(vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behavior of their role model, then
they are likely to adopt a similar type of behavior. For example, a teen that
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idolizes a rock star may start playing a musical instrument such as a guitar. As a
result,theirbehaviorhasnowbeenaltered.
It is further subdivided into the type of behavior we acquire as a result of
sociallearningintoeitherprosocialorantisocialbehavior.
Prosocial behavior is behavior that benefits another person, a
group of people or society as a whole. For example, if a child learns to
recycle and live an environmentally friendly lifestyle from their parents,
then they are likely to act that way for the rest of their life. Their behavior is
prosocial,becauseitbenefitstheenvironmentandsocietyasawhole.
Antisocial behavior is behavior which is destructive to others and
very often to yourself. For example, a teen who steals from other people
or who vandalizes property is exhibiting antisocial behavior, because it is
destructivetootherpeopleandthesurroundingenvironment.
4. Latent learning is learning which occurs without reinforcement, and which may
later be reactivated with a reinforcer. For example, if a rat is left in a maze, it will
randomly exploring that maze and try to find a way out. If we repeat this several
times, the rat may appear to exhibit the same type of behavior where it randomly
explores the maze looking for the exit. Although the rat has been in this maze
several times, it appears not to have learned anything because it still takes a long
time to get out. If however, we were to then introduce some food into the maze (a
reinforcer), the rat would quickly learn to escape the maze. Almost as though it
suddenlylearnedhowtodoit.
The purpose of the reinforcer was to act as an incentive, which activates
what the rat had previously learned. In this case, the first few times the rat was
exploring the maze it was learning, even though it appeared not to be learning
anything. When we added food to the maze, this prior learning which had
remained latent (dormant), suddenly became reactivated thereby allowing the rat
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to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route.
Basically, what this all means is that you learn things through experience, even
thoughyoumaynotthinkthatyouarelearninganythingatthetime.
Later, if something reactivated what you had (latently) learned from that
experience, you will then be able to learn it very quickly. For example, when you
are at school, one of the best ways to improve your understanding of a subject is
to research it before you are meant to learn it. So if you have a lecture next
week, by studying for that lecture now you will be able to understand it better and
faster once you actually take that lecture. Your prior latent learning has allowed
foranacceleratedfuturelearning.
This is hardly surprising if you look at things from the perspective of the
brain, as when you learn something, you form neural pathways in the brain
related to that activity. This means that the next time you do it, your existing
neural pathways will be strengthened and refined thereby allowing you to perform
better.
Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these
pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning. This is why it is
important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a
subject, because even though it may seem difficult now, the next time you come
acrossit,youwillfindthingstobealoteasier.
5. Insight Learning is an aha! moment, when something suddenly seems to click
into place and make sense. A good example of this can be found with research
done by Wolfgang Kohler on an ape called Sultan. Sultan was put in a cage and
given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longer tool. Slightly
outside the reach of the sticks was an orange. Sultan spent a lot of time trying to
get the orange. First with his hands, and then with the sticks. However, he was
unable to reach the orange no matter what he did. Then one day Sultan clicked
the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This insight that
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Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get the orange and a
reorganization of those experiences. So whereas previously Sultan had two
seemingly useless sticks, he now had a useful long stick, something which he did
not have the insight to see before. So insight learning is an insight into our past
experiences, from which, we can then use to solve problems we were previously
unable to. This has most likely happened to you many times. For example,
someone may be trying to explain something to you, but no matter what they say,
you just dont seem to get it. Then, all of a sudden, it clicks and aha you now
seewhattheyweretryingtosay.
Resistancetoextinction
Since insight learning is acquired as a result of past experiences, it
tends to be fairly resistant to forgetting. In other words, once youve got it,
youve got it. On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply
through memorization, then you are likely to forget what you had learned
very quickly. This is why it is extremely important to try to actively apply
what you mentally do, to solidify that knowledge in the brain. If you are at
school, and are trying to learn a subject well, then a good way to solidify
your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be
activelyusingyourmentalknowledge.
6. Learning to Learn describes the use of learning sets in learning. Basically, it
states that we become better at what we repeatedly do. So for example, if you
solve crossword puzzles, then over time you are likely to find them easier and
easier and so will need harder puzzles to challenge you. The same applies to
learning a new subject. At first it seems hard, but the more you study it, the
easier it becomes. The idea of learning sets first came from research done by
psychologist Harry Harlow, who tested a monkeys ability to find a grape under a
container. The test was to see if the monkey could discriminate between the two
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different shapes of the containers, by getting the grape from the underneath the
correct container. What Harlow found was that after the first exercise, the
monkeys ability to discriminate between different shapes (and get the grape) in
subsequent exercises rapidly increased. The monkey was said to have acquired
alearningset,usingpreviousknowledgetoquicklysolvefutureproblems.
7. TheRoleofMemory
Memory is defined as the ability to retain knowledge, and is therefore
necessaryforlearning.
Theprocessofmemoryinvolvesthreemainstages:
Encoding is the process of making information meaningful to you, and a good
example of encoding, can be found with anagrams. For example, if you are presented
with the letters ABT they would be meaningless to you. If however, you are told that
ABT represents an animal which can fly, then you can rearrange those letters to form
BATwhichnowhasmeaningtoyou.
Storage is the ability to retain information for a period of time, and can be further
subdividedintoshorttermmemoryandlongtermmemory.
Short term memory is also called working memory. It allows you to hold
ontoinformationforafewminutes,afterwhich,youwillthenforgetit.
Long term memory is information which has been more or less
permanently stored. This type of memory is what allows you to remember your
past. Long term memory tends to be associated with shortterm memory,
because if your shortterm memory is impaired, then this will interfere with your
capacitytoformlongtermmemories.
Retrieval occurs when you access a previously stored memory. In other words, it
comesintoyourconsciousawareness.
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There are three main processes which can occur during the retrieval of
memories.
a. Recall is the ability to easily recall a memory. For example, you know
whatyourfriendsnameis.
b. Recognition occurs when something helps you to remember something
else. For example, a multiple choice test will contain one correct answer.
When you see the correct answer, it will help you to recall any previously
storedmemorythatyoumayhaveofit.
c. Repression occurs when a memory is forced into the unconscious in an
attempt to protect the ego from some sort of psychological threat. For
example,apainfulortraumaticexperienceinyourlife.
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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion
Motivation
Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill
Abel? Why do students study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations
(and don't say, "to pass examinations")? Why do professors teach students, and why do
theyteststudents?Whydidyoupickoutthoseshoesorthosepantstoweartoday?
Each of these questions has an answer, there is some motive for engaging in
those behaviors. We may define a motive (or motivation) as a need, want, interest, or
desirethatpropelssomeone(oranorganism)inacertaindirection.
This motivating mechanism can be called many things a habit, a belief, a desire,
an instinct, a need, an interest, a compulsion, or a drive but no matter what its label, it is
this motivation that prompts us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the
verb"tomove."
Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study
of goaldirected behavior. With this definition in mind, are humans the only type of living
organism that can have motivation? (this is for you to think about, not a question I am
goingtoanswerforyouatthispoint)
I.TheoreticalPerspectives
A)InstinctTheories
Many of the different theories of motivation are similar, except for the amount of
emphasis they place on either biology or environment. Most include some level of both
(some nature, some nurture). However, there is one theory that completely emphasizes
biology,Instincttheory.
1) Instinct Theory states that motivation is the result of biological, genetic programming.
Thus,allbeingswithinaspeciesareprogrammedforthesamemotivations.
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a) At the heart of this perspective, is the motivation to survive we are
biologically programmed to survive. And, all of our behaviors and motivations
stemfrombiologicalprogramming.Thus,areactionsareinstincts.
For example, a human mother, unlike many other species, will stay awake
with a crying infant all night long trying to provide comfort. Why? Instinct theory
suggests that she is programmed to behave in this manner it is not due to
learning or conditioning, not to being raised properly or poorly, not to having
strong female role models or weak role models, or anything else, other that pure
biology.
This perspective is very much the sort that was offered recently in the
controversial article that stated, Parents don't matter that much in the development of
theirchildren.
b) William McDougal (1908) influential theorist who viewed instincts as
behaviorpatternsthatare:
1.unlearned
2.uniforminexpression
3.universalinaspecies
For example, within a species of bird, all the members may build identical nests
and work in the same ways. This is true even for those birds of that species born and
raised in captivity and isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest
buildingbehaviorfromother,experiencedrolemodelbirds.
McDougal carried it a step further by stating that humans are the same and have
instinctsforbehaviorssuchas:parenting,submission,jealousy,mating,andmore.
c)Problemswiththisperspective
1. theorists have never been able to agree on a list of instincts
Many instincts are NOT universal and seem to be more dependent on
individual differences (for example, jealousy. Not all humans exhibit the
samejealouslylevels,behaviors,etc.).
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2. today instinct theory has a more biological emphasis for specific
motives and not all (like aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong
instinctperspectiveinthestudyofanimals(ethology)
B) Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) the study of genetic and evolutionary
bases of behavior in all organisms, including humans. This view spawned from instinct
theory,butitisnotpurelyaninstincttheory.
1) Major Viewpoint sociobiology states that natural selection favors social
behaviors that maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for
living organisms (including humans) is to pass on our genes from one generation to the
next.
This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in the last 15 million years
the human species has evolved socially as well as physically. Through the process of
natural selection, individuals who were even slightly predisposed to engage in adaptive
social behaviors were the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more
successful in passing their genes along to future generations. Over countless
generations, this selection process weeded out individuals who lacked these
predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even though these
tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher
environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors
whensituationalcuescallforthancientinstincts
Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that
increases survival will eventually become genetically based. However, sociobiology has
changed this view slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goal is not mere
survival, or even the survival of its offspring. Rather, the fittest individual is the one that
succeeds in passing the maximum number of genes on to the next generation. Why, for
example, do animals go to all the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because
having children is an extremely effective means of ensuring the survival of one's genes
in a future generation. Caring for offspring may seem selfsacrificing, but these actions
are prompted by the gene's selfish tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the
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parent perishes protecting its young, its genes will continue to flourish in its offspring. To
Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest
animalistheonethatmaximizesthesurvivalofitsgenesinfuturegenerations.
2) This perspective can explain motives such as competition, aggression, sexual
activity,anddominance.
3) It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For
example:
In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked
strangers of the opposite sex one of the following questions: "I have been noticing you
around campus. I find you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the
following questions, depending on the group the subject had been assigned to: (a)
"Would you go out with me tonight" (b) "Would you come over to my apartment
tonight?"(c)"Wouldyougotobedwithmetonight?"
The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the
75% hit rate for men. Is it possible that the differences were due to instincts or do you
thinktheymustbeduetosomethingelse?
In another example: Studies have shown that women are more likely to engage
in extramarital affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely to get pregnant (the
studies did NOT state or even insinuate that the women were making conscious efforts
to get pregnant from a male other than their spouse or boyfriend, only that women were
indeed more likely to be ovulating during the time they decided to have the extramarital
affairs).
4) Seems Selfish this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain
seeminglyaltruisticbehaviors:
For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a
predator) is nearby? In so doing, the Blackbird increases its chance of getting killed, but
also increases the chances of the other Blackbirds surviving and, therefore, increasing
the odds that more genes will be passed on an organism will risk its own life to keep the
possibility of passing on familial genes alive. Others of the same genetic strain will
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survive and keep the gene pool going even if that particular bird does not so this may be
aselfishperspective,butithasthepotentialtoproduceremarkablyunselfishbehavior.
C)DriveTheories
a) A Drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in
activitiesthatshould(hopefully)reducethistension.
b) Most organisms seem to try and maintain Homeostasis a state of
physiologicalequilibrium.
For example, we have a homeostatic temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. If
this temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic
responses: if temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you
shiver.
So, when you experience a drive, you are motivated to reduce this state of tension and
pursueactionsthatwillleadtoadrivereduction(reducethestateoftension).
For Example hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension drive),
which leads to the motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a
reduction in physical tension (drive reduction), which finally leads to the restoration of
equilibrium.
c)Therearesomeproblems:
1) homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives "thirst for
knowledge"...whattheheckisthat?
2) motivation may exist without a drive arousal. For example, humans do
not eat only when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice
dinner, eat enough to be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate
dessertanyway?Ithoughtso.
D)IncentiveTheory
An incentive may be defined as an external goal that has the capacity to motivate
behavior. This does not mean that it will always motivate behavior, only that it can. Now,
we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories: Drive
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theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction. However, incentive
theoryactswhenanexternalstimuluspullsyouinacertaindirection.
This is directly related to Skinner. Here we can see a move away from biological
influence toward the environment and its influence on behavior. You attend class not
because you were biologically programmed to become a student, but rather, because
there is something external that is rewarding to you. Is it the grade you seek? Is it the
desire to avoid going into the job market? Is it the desire to obtain a better job with a
degree than possible without one? Regardless which it is, the idea is that the motivation
issomethingexternal,notinternal.
E)Maslow'sNeedHierarchy
This Humanistic perspective is a blend of biological and social needs and is a
sweeping overview of human motivation. Because Maslow believed that all needs vary
in strength, he arranged them in a pyramidal form to indicate which have more strength.
The most basic needs (like shelter and food) are vital to daily survival, and are at the
bottom,whileneedsthatarelessimportanttostayingalivearehigheronthepyramid.
We may define the Need Hierarchy as a systematic arrangement of needs
according to priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic
needs are aroused. Thus, like stage theories, we must meet one need before we move
ontothenext.
Levels:
1) physiological these include the need for food, water, and other vital components of
life. If these needs are not met, the organism can't survive. Thus, these are the most
basicandimportant.
2) safety and security these needs refer more to the long term survival than day to
day needs. Humans tend to seek out order and have a desire to live in a world that is
not filled with chaos and danger. As a result, they seek out stable lives with careers,
homes,insurance,etc.
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3) belongingness and love after obtaining a safe environment to live and establishing
some long term plans, people seek out love and affection from family members, friends,
andlovers.
4) esteem at this level, people become concerned with selfesteem which may be
basedonachievementsthattheyearn,recognitionfromothersforjobstheydo,etc.
5) cognitive needs at this level are based on acquiring knowledge and understanding
of the world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a
degree)thenyouareattemptingtofulfillyourcognitiveneeds.
6) aesthetic aesthetic needs include beauty and order in life. Getting your life in order
may provide a sense of comfort that people often lack. In addition, spending time finding
and observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not
have to struggle and fight to stay alive. Remember the episode of Star Trek: The Next
Generation in which people from our century who had been frozen are found and
thawed? These people could not understand that money was no longer important, that
starvation had been abolished on Earth, and that people now had the opportunity and
will to better themselves through learning about art, music, etc. Picard was preaching
theaestheticlevelofMaslow'shierarchy.
7) selfactualization this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact,
according to Maslow, very few people actually reach this level. Selfactualization is the
need to fulfill one's own potential. As Maslow stated, "What a man can be, he must be."
Interestingly, Maslow indicated that people will be frustrated if they can't pursue their
true loves and talents. For example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they
become a doctor, they will be forever frustrated because the need for selfactualization
willbehindered.
Emotion
We all have them, and yet most of us can't explain them. Do people really know
why they have them, when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many
other aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions are comprised of several
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components. We will discuss emotions in terms of the cognitive, physiological, and
behavioralcomponents.
A.CognitiveLevel(thisisthelabelornameassociatedwiththeemotion)
1) One key aspect of emotions, according to Woodworth & Schlosberg, is that we
have perceptions of them that usually ranges from pleasantnessunpleasantness &
weakstrong(thisisthelevelofactivation)
So, we perceive our emotions as having some level of pleasantness and
strength. For example, if your boyfriend or girlfriend breaks up with you, you experience
some type of emotion, like sadness. Then, you experience this emotion along the
pleasantness and strength dimensions if you loved this person, you may experience
sadnessthatisveryunpleasantandintense(strength).
1. Usually, research on emotions involve a person's subjective report or
experience of an experience. Aside from all of the normal problems associated
with selfreport data, there are a few others that occur with self report measures
ofemotions:
a) there are over 400 words in the English language that refer to
emotions. So how do we know exactly what is meant (how do we
operationalize) when someone says, for example, they feel "sad"? What
doesthatmeancomparedtoalltheotherwords?
b) people can't turn emotions on and off so control over these for
studyisverydifficult.
c) as we know, emotions involve some type of personal evaluations
that normally ranges from pleasantunpleasant. However, we may have
experiences that involve both. For example getting a promotion = more
money, but also more responsibility and more time away from others
activities. So there are both pleasant and unpleasant emotions associated
withthisoneexperience.
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B.PhysiologicalLevel
Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic
level(involuntary/automatic).
For example have you ever had the experience of being in a car when it spins
out of control on an icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you
experience an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, your pupils dilate, etc.
Thisoccurs,atsomelevel,withallemotions.Thesystemsinvolvedwiththisactivityare:
1)CentralNervousSystem(CNS):limbicsystemandcortex
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic and autonomic, sympathetic and
parasympathetic. But, very often physiological changes are too small to notice. In these
cases,werelyon:
1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measures fluctuations in electrical
conductivityoftheskinthatoccurwhensweatglandsincreaseactivity.
2) Polygraph "lie detector" used to measure the subtle variations in muscle
tension,heartrate,etc.,associatedwithemotionthatoccurverysubtly.
C.BehavioralLevel:NonverbalExpression
Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling,
frowning, clenching their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate
emotionsnonverballythroughbodylanguage.
One of the most influential and important researchers in the field of emotion, is
Ekman.HereareacoupleofexamplesfromEkman'swork:
Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion was being
expressed in those photos. He found that people from different cultures could recognize
common facial features (people from different cultures all identified, for example, smiling
asasignofhappiness).
He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial
expressions:happiness,sadness,anger,fear,surprise,disgust,andcontempt.
He also indicated that the use of facial expressions to communicate seems to be innate
peoplewhohavebeenblindfrombirthmakemanysimilarfacialexpressions.
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THEORIESOFEMOTIONS
A.JAMESLANGETHEORYOFEMOTION
1.Background:
James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of
emotionataboutsametimethusthetheorywasnamedforbothofthem.
2.Acommonsenseideaaboutemotionwouldbe:
Environmental influence (some event) > Psychological experience >
Physiologicalstatechanges(emotions)
BUT:theJamesLangetheorystates:
Environmental influence (event) > Physiological change > Psychological
experience
In other words, James and Lange would say, "I feel afraid because I tremble". If a
person sees a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest
that the person would tremble and then realize that, because they are trembling, they
areafraid.
3.Jamesstated:
"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion.
Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep we meet a bear, are
frightened and run we are insulted by a rival, and angry and strike. The hypothesis here
to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect and that the more rational
statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because
we tremble. Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be
purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then
see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but
weshouldnotactuallyfeelafraidorangry."
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4.Problems:
Later studies separated the internal organs that James said caused arousal from
the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily
changescouldnotbetheonlyfactorinvolvedinemotions.
B.TheCannonBardTheory
1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time
(although Cannon was considered to be the more influential one). This theory made use
ofinformationaboutphysiologicalstructuresnotavailabletoJamesandLange.
2. Cannon's critique (1929) of JamesLange Theory He indicated that some of the
problemswiththeJamesLangetheorywere:
a) People who show different emotions may have the same physiological
(visceral)stateExample:crywhenhappy&sad
b) visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the
experiencetobeusedascues
c) visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions, which erupt
very quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry
beforeyoufeelsad?Orcanyoufeelsadbeforecrying?
d)physiologicalarousalmayoccurwithouttheexperienceofanemotion:
For example: exercise > increased heart rate > no emotional
significance
3.backtocommonsensetheory:
Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to BOTH the cortex (which
produces conscious experience of emotion) and autonomic nervous system (visceral
arousal)atthesametime.
BUT as we already know, the thalamus is not the only player involved in
emotion.
The limbic system, hypothalamus and others are all involved. So, this leads us to
theCognitiveview.
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C.CognitiveView:SchachterandSingerTwoFactorTheory
1) Schachter and Singer maintain that we don't automatically know when we are
happy, angry, or jealous. Instead, we label our emotions by considering situational cues.
We feel some emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that
particular time, we use the cues in the environment at the time to help us determine the
currentemotion.Thislabelingprocessdependsontwofactors:
a) some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific
arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid
breathing.
b) people search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what
hascausedtheemotion.
TheinfamousSchachterSingerstudyofemotion:
1) Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they were studying a vitamin
supplement called Suproxin. The men were asked if they were willing to take the drug,
and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine,
which is also called adrenaline, is released by our hormonal system whenever we face
a stressful situation, and generally increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration.
Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than
thosewhoreceivedtheinertplacebo.
2) Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical
sensations. They told some of the epinephrineinjected subjects that even though the
drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their
hands might shake, and their hearts might pound. The other subjects, in contrast, were
given no information at all about the effects of the drug. Schachter and Singer reasoned
that once the epinephrine kicked in, their subjects would begin to search for the cause
of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them should
have assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and their heart to pound.
But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more likely to
interprettheirarousalasanemotion.
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3) What kind of emotion would these uninformed subjects experience? Schachter
and Singer believed that their reaction would depend on the available situational cues.
They therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to
wait for the Suproxin's effects in a small room with another person. This individual was
one of Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained to behave in either a
euphoric or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20
minutes, doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up
balls of paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower out of file folders,
and playing with a Hula Hoop. The angry confederate, in contrast, became increasingly
agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires
that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing
questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and
family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the
question"Howmanytimeseachweekdoyouhavesexualintercourse?"
4) Schachter and Singer observed and coded the actions taken by each subject,
and also asked them to describe their emotional state. As they had predicted, the
physiologically aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's sideeffects
responded with emotions that matched the confederate's actions. If they were aroused
and hadn't been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellow subject
was happy, but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and
unaroused subjects who received a placebo, however, did not display any pronounced
emotion. Also, the subjects in a special control condition people who had been given
epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect also displayed the
emotionsenactedbyaeuphoricconfederate
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